On the Soul

"Expositio et quaestiones" in Aristoteles De Anima (Jean Buridan, c. 1362)

On the Soul (Greek: Περὶ Ψυχῆς, Peri Psychēs; Latin: De Anima) is a major treatise written by Aristotle c. 350 BC classifying organisms' souls by their operations. In it, he alleges plants have the capacity for nourishment and reproduction, the minimum that must be possessed by any kind of living organism. Lower animals have, in addition, the powers of sense-perception and self-motion (action). Humans have all these as well as intellect.

Aristotle holds that the soul (psyche, ψυχή) is the form, or essence of any living thing; it is not a distinct substance from the body that it is in. It is the possession of a soul (of a specific kind) that makes an organism an organism at all, and thus the notion of a body without a soul, or of a soul in the wrong kind of body, is simply unintelligible. (He argues that some parts of the soul—the intellect—can exist without the body, but most cannot.)

In 1855, Charles Collier published a translation titled On the Vital Principle. George Henry Lewes, however, found this description also wanting.

Division of chapters

The treatise is divided into three books, and each of the books is divided into chapters (five, twelve, and thirteen, respectively). The treatise is near-universally abbreviated "DA", for "De anima", and books and chapters generally referred to by Roman and Arabic numerals, respectively, along with corresponding Bekker numbers. (Thus, "DA I.1, 402a1" means "De anima, book I, chapter 1, Bekker page 402, Bekker column a [the column on the left side of the page], line number 1.)

Book I

DA I.1 introduces the theme of the treatise;
DA I.2–5 provide a survey of Aristotle’s predecessors’ views about the soul

Book II

DA II.1–3 gives Aristotle's definition of soul and outlines his own study of it, which is then pursued as follows:
DA II.4 discusses nutrition and reproduction;
DA II.5–6 discuss sensation in general;
DA II.7–11 discuss each of the five senses (in the following order: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch—one chapter for each);
DA II.12 again takes up the general question of sensation;

Book III

DA III.1 argues there are no other senses than the five already mentioned;
DA III.2 discusses the problem of what it means to "sense sensing" (i.e., to "be aware" of sensation);
DA III.3 investigates the nature of imagination;
DA III.4–7 discuss thinking and the intellect, or mind;
DA III.8 articulates the definition and nature of soul;
DA III.9–10 discuss the movement of animals possessing all the senses;
DA III.11 discusses the movement of animals possessing only touch;
DA III.12–13 take up the question of what are the minimal constituents of having a soul and being alive.

Summary

Book I contains a summary of Aristotle's method of investigation and a dialectical determination of the nature of the soul. He begins by conceding that attempting to define the soul is one of the most difficult questions in the world. But he proposes an ingenious method to tackle the question:

Just as we can come to know the properties and operations of something through scientific demonstration, i.e. a geometrical proof that a triangle has its interior angles equal to two right angles, since the principle of all scientific demonstration is the essence of the object, so too we can come to know the nature of a thing if we already know its properties and operations. It is like finding the middle term to a syllogism with a known conclusion.

Therefore, we must seek out such operations of the soul to determine what kind of nature it has. From a consideration of the opinions of his predecessors, a soul, he concludes, will be that in virtue of which living things have life.

Book II contains his scientific determination of the nature of the soul, an element of his biology. By dividing substance into its three meanings (matter, form, and what is composed of both), he shows that the soul must be the first actuality of a natural, organized body. This is its form or essence. It cannot be matter because the soul is that in virtue of which things have life, and matter is only being in potentiality. The rest of the book is divided into a determination of the nature of the nutritive and sensitive souls.

(1) All species of living things, plant or animal, must be able to nourish themselves, and reproduce others of the same kind.
(2) All animals have, in addition to the nutritive power, sense-perception, and thus they all have at least the sense of touch, which he argues is presupposed by all other senses, and the ability to feel pleasure and pain, which is the simplest kind of perception. If they can feel pleasure and pain they also have desire.

Some animals in addition have other senses (sight, hearing, taste), and some have more subtle versions of each (the ability to distinguish objects in a complex way, beyond mere pleasure and pain.) He discusses how these function. Some animals have in addition the powers of memory, imagination, and self-motion.

Aristotle describes the structure of the souls of plants, animals, and humans in Books II and III.

Book III distinguishes the passive intellect, which is receptive of all intelligible objects, from the active intellect, which brings them into actuality. Their distinction follows Aristotle's general account of causation. the passive intellect is the receptive substrate, analogous to matter and potentiality, while the latter supplies the immaterial principle of actualisation, analogous to form and the arranging of the passive intellect. The absence of a bodily organ for thinking consequently distinguishes intellect from other faculties of the soul, but does not establish that it constitutes an independently existing substance.

Intellect's activity is numerically distinct from bodily activity, yet remains dependent upon the living organism because the objects of human thought are apprehended through their relation to the passive intellect, and the body more generally. According to Aristotle, abstract objects can be understood through their relation to material existence, without requiring an independently subsisting human intellect. Thus, the active intellect's description as eternal and separable need not imply the immortality of the individual thinker: what is a taxonomical is not necessarily an ontological one.

Arabic paraphrase

In Late Antiquity, Aristotelian texts became re-interpreted in terms of Neoplatonism. There is a paraphrase of De Anima which survives in the Arabic tradition which reflects such a Neoplatonic synthesis. The text was translated into Persian in the 13th century. It is likely based on a Greek original which is no longer extant, and which was further syncretised in the heterogeneous process of adoption into early Arabic literature.

A later Arabic translation of De Anima into Arabic is due to Ishaq ibn Hunayn (d. 910). Ibn Zura (d. 1008) made a translation into Arabic from Syriac. The Arabic versions show a complicated history of mutual influence. Avicenna (d. 1037) wrote a commentary on De Anima, which was translated into Latin by Michael Scotus. Averroes (d. 1198) used two Arabic translations, mostly relying on the one by Ishaq ibn Hunayn, but occasionally quoting the older one as an alternative. Zerahiah ben Shealtiel Ḥen translated Aristotle's De anima from Arabic into Hebrew in 1284. Both Averroes and Zerahiah used the translation by Ibn Zura.

Some manuscripts

Codex Vaticanus 253

Codex Vaticanus 253 is one of the most important manuscripts of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol L. Paleographically it has been assigned to the 13th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript is not complete; it contains only Book III. It belongs to the textual family λ, together with the manuscripts E, Fc, Lc, Kd, and P.

The manuscript was cited by Trendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in their critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library (gr. 253) in Rome.

Codex Vaticanus 260

Codex Vaticanus 260 is one of the most important manuscripts of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol U. Paleographically it has been assigned to the 11th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains the complete text of the treatise. It belongs to the textual family ν, together with the manuscripts X, v, Ud, Ad, and Q.

The manuscript was cited by Trendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in their critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library (Vat. gr. 260) in Rome.

Codex Vaticanus 266

Codex Vaticanus 266 is one of the most important manuscripts of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol V. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 14th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise. It belongs to the textual family κ, but only to Chapter 8. of II book.

Another member of the family κ: Gc W Hc Nc Jd Oc Zc Vc Wc f Nd Td.

The manuscript was cited by Trendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, and Apelt in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. David Ross did not use the manuscript in his own edition. Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library (gr. 266) in Rome.

Codex Vaticanus 1026

Codex Vaticanus 1026 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol W. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 13th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The Greek text of the manuscript is eclectic. It belongs to the textual family μ to II book, 7 chapter, 419 a 27. Since 419 a 27 it is a representative of the family κ.

The manuscript was not cited by Trendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. It means the manuscript has not high value. Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library (gr. 1026) at Rome.

Codex Vaticanus 1339

Codex Vaticanus 1339 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol P. Paleographically it has been assigned to the 14th or 15th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The text of the manuscript is eclectic. It represents the textual family σ in book II of the treatise, from II, 2, 314b11, to II, 8, 420a2. After book II, chapter 9, 429b16, it belongs to the family λ.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in rheir critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. This means the manuscript is not of high value. Currently it is housed at the Vatican Library (gr. 1339) at Rome.

Codex Ambrosianus 435

Codex Ambrosianus 435 is one of the most important manuscripts of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol X. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 12th or 13th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains the complete text of the treatise. It belongs to the textual family ν, together with the manuscripts v Ud Ad U Q.

The manuscript is one of nine manuscripts that was cited by Trendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and one of five cited by Ross in their critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. Currently it is housed at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana (435 (H. 50)) in Milan.

Codex Ambrosianus 837

Codex Ambrosianus 837 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol Dc. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 13th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The text of the manuscript is eclectic. It represents to the textual family σ, in I-II books of the treatise. In III book of the treatise it belongs to the family τ.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, or Ross in their critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. Currently it is housed at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana (837 (B 7 Inf.)) in Milan.

Codex Coislinianus 386

Codex Coislinianus 386 is one of the important manuscripts of the treatise. It is designated by the symbol C. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 11th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains the complete text of the treatise. It belongs to the textual family ξ, together with the manuscripts T Ec Xd Pd Hd.

The manuscript was cited by David Ross in his critical edition of the treatise On the Soul. Currently it is housed at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Coislin 386) in Paris.

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 2

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 2 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol Td. Dated by a Colophon to the year 1496. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The text of the manuscript represents the textual family κ.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. It means the manuscript has not high value. Currently it is housed at the Austrian National Library (Philos. 2) at Vienna.

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 75

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 75 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol Sd. Dated by a Colophon to the year 1446. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The text of the manuscript represents to the textual family ρ.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. It means the manuscript has not high value. Currently it is housed at the Austrian National Library (Philos. 75) at Vienna.

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 157

Codex Vindobonensis Philos. 157 is a manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol Rd. Paleographically it had been assigned to the 15th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains a complete text of the treatise.

The text of the manuscript represents the textual family π.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. It means the manuscript has not high value. Currently it is housed at the Austrian National Library (Philos. 157) at Vienna.

Codex Marcianus CCXXVIII (406)

Codex Marcianus GR. Z. 228 (=406) contains a partial manuscript of the treatise. It is designated by symbol Oc. Paleographically, it has been assigned to the 14th century. It is written in Greek minuscule letters. The manuscript contains the incomplete text of the treatise. The text of Book II ends at 419 a 27. It has not Book III of the treatise. The codex includes commentary on the treatise by Simplicius of Cilicia and Sophonias and paraphrases by Themistius (fourteenth century).

The text of the manuscript represents the textual family κ.

The manuscript was not cited by Tiendelenburg, Torstrik, Biehl, Apelt, and Ross in his critical editions of the treatise On the Soul. It means the manuscript does not have high value.

The codex also has commentary by Pseudo-Diadochus on Plato's Timaeus, commentary by Simplicius of Cilicia on Aristotle's On the Heavens, commentary by Ammonius Hermiae’s on Plato's Phaedrus, and commentary by Proclus on Plato's Parmenides.

Currently, it is housed at the Biblioteca Marciana (BNM Gr. Z. 228 (=406)) in Venice.

Influence

Modern era

In the introduction to the third part of his Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline, Hegel affirmed:

Among the men of old, [Aristotle is] the one that most deserves to be studied. [...] Aristotle’s books on the soul as well as his treatises on its specific aspects and conditions are for this reason still the most outstanding work—or the only one of speculative interest—on this subject matter. The essential purpose of a philosophy of the spirit can only be to reintroduce the concept into the cognition of the spirit and thereby also to reopen the meaning of these Aristotelian books.

— Hegel, Werke 19: 131, and 19: 241–242

In his Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Hegel continues:

“in recent times no other philosophy has been so much offended against as this [sc. the Aristotelian], and to no other ancient philosopher so many apologies are owed as to Aristotle.

— Hegel, Werke 10: 9

English translations

Footnotes

References

  1. ↑ On the Soul, by Aristotle written c.350 B.C.E, translation: J. A. Smith, The Internet Classics Archive, MIT, Retrieved 2 February 2016
  2. ↑ George Henry Lewes (1864). Aristotle: A Chapter from the History of Science, Including Analyses of Aristotle's Scientific Writings. OCLC 15174038.
  3. ↑ In chapter 3 of Book II he enumerates five psychic powers: the nutritive (θρεπτικόν), the sensory (αἰσθητικόν), the appetitive (ὀρεκτικόν), the locomotive (κινητικὸν), and the power of thinking (διανοητικόν).
  4. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, III.4–5, 429a13–430a17; Theophrastus, apud Themistius, In De Anima, 108.20–109.3.
  5. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, II.2, 414a4–14; III.5, 430a10–17; Roreitner (2021), §2.
  6. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, I.1, 403a3–12; III.4, 429a18–27; Roreitner (2021), §§1–2; Corcilius, Falcon and Roreitner (2024), ch. 6.
  7. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, III.4, 429b10–22; III.8, 432a3–14; Roreitner (2021), §§2–3.
  8. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, III.7, 431b17–19; Metaphysics, XII.7–9; Alexander of Aphrodisias, apud Pseudo-Simplicius, In De Anima; Roreitner (2021), §§4–6.
  9. ↑ Aristotle, De Anima, II.1, 413a3–9; III.5, 430a17–25; Roreitner (2021), §§4–6; Corcilius, Falcon and Roreitner (2024), ch. 6.
  10. ↑ Rüdiger Arnzen (ed.), Aristoteles' De anima, Volume 9 of Aristoteles Semitico-Latinus, 1998. Alfred L. Ivry, The Arabic Text of Aristotle's "De anima" and Its Translator, Oriens Vol. 36 (2001), pp. 59-77. On the reception of De Anima in Arabic tradition in general see Rafael Ramo Guerrero, La recepcion arabe del DE ANIMA de Aristoteles: Al Kindi y Al Farabi, Madrid (1992) for an overview of literature. Compare also the Arabic text known as Theologia Aristotelis, which is in fact a paraphrase of Plotinus Six Enneads.
  11. ↑ Josep Puig Montada, Aristotle's On the Soul in the Arabic tradition, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (2012).
  12. ↑ Another manuscripts of that family: Hd Yd Jd Ga Q.
  13. ↑ Another manuscripts of that family: Gc Hc Nc Jd Oc V Zc Vc Wc f Nd Td.
  14. ↑ Other members of this group are Dc, m, Rc, Xc, Fd, and Hd.
  15. ↑ Other manuscripts of this family are E, L, Fc, Lc, and Kd.
  16. ↑ Another members of this group m Rc Xc Fd Hd P.
  17. ↑ Another manuscripts of this family: Md Ld Bd Bc Vc.
  18. ↑ Gc W Hc Nc Jd Oc V Zc Vc Wc f Nd.
  19. ↑ Another members of this group Kc i Pc Cc l Wd y Mc.
  20. ↑ Another members of this group S Od Ed Tc c Dd Sc Uc Vd Yc Qa.
  21. ↑ Together with the manuscripts: Gc W Hc Nc Jd V Zc Vc Wc f Nd Td.
  22. 1 2 doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26904-7_1
  23. 1 2 Hegel, Werke = Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Werke in 20 Bänden. Auf der Grundlage der Werke von 1832–1845 neu ediert. Redaktion Eva Moldenhauerde and Karl Markus Michel de. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1979. OCLC 781490192

Further reading