Erigena on a stained glass window in the chapel of Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
According to one author "The native characteristics of British philosophy are these: common sense, dislike of complication, a strong preference for the concrete over the abstract and a certain awkward honesty of method in which an occasional pearl of poetry is embedded".
According to American pragmatist Charles Sanders Peirce: "From very early times, it has been the chief intellectual characteristics of the English to wish to effect everything by the plainest and directest means, without unnecessary contrivance...In philosophy, this national tendency appears as a strong preference for the simplest theories, and a resistance to any complication of the theory as long as there is the least possibility that the facts can be explained in the simpler way. And, accordingly, British philosophers have always desired to weed out of philosophy all conceptions which could not be made perfectly definite and easily intelligible, and have shown strong nominalistic tendencies since the time of Edward I, or even earlier."
Bertrand Russell wrote: "The British are distinguished among the nations of modern Europe, on the one hand by the excellence of their philosophers, and on the other hand by their contempt for philosophy. In both respects they show their wisdom."
Adelard was a follower of French philosopherWalter of Mortagne (c. 1100–1174), leader of the "indifferentists", a type of platonist who attempts to avoid the more extreme forms of platonism, and according to whom the universal it itself indifferent, changing according to points of view.
John of Salisbury
16th-century depiction of John of Salisbury teaching.
The University of Oxford goes back as far as 1096, and grew rapidly after 1167, when King Henry II temporarily prohibited students from attending the University of Paris. After conflicts between students and townspeople, some Oxford academics fled northeast and established the University of Cambridge in 1209. Both universities share much in common and are jointly referred to as Oxbridge.
John Blund
John Blund (c. 1175–1248) taught at Oxford alongside Edmund of Abingdon (c. 1174–1240). Blund is called by medieval historian Maurice Powicke the "first English Aristotelian." Blund wrote Tractatus de Anima (c. 1200), one of the first Western philosophy works to make use of De Anima by Aristotle, and Avicenna's work also called De Anima.
Alexander Neckam (1157–1217) was the foster-brother of Richard the Lionhearted and an abbot of Cirencester who taught at Oxford. Neckam blended Christianity with Platonic cosmology, such as in the Timaeus; but was also influenced by Blund; On the Nature of Things (c. 1190) relays natural philosophy (science) such as biology learned from Aristotle and Arabic sources. Neckam contributed the earliest European description of the compass.
Robert Grosseteste from an early 14th-century portrait.
Historian A.C. Crombie called Robert Grosseteste (c.1170–1253) "the real founder of the tradition of scientific thought in medieval Oxford, and in some ways, of the modern English intellectual tradition". Grosseteste studied optics and the "metaphysics of light", identifying light with Aristotelian form in such works as On Light.
Grosseteste was friends with Adam Marsh (c.1200–1259). Oxford's Richard Fishacre (c. 1200–1248) was influenced by Grosseteste, and wrote a commentary of Sentences. Bartholomaeus Anglicus (1202–1272) is also believed to have studied under Grosseteste.
William of Sherwood
William of Sherwood (c. 1200–1272) was an English logician and teacher. Little is known of his life, but he is thought to have studied in Paris and was a master at Oxford in 1252. He was the author of two books which were an important influence on the development of scholasticterminist logic in both Britain and on the continent: Introduction to Logic and Syncategoremata, the first known works on supposition theory. Syncategoremata were terms like "and", "or", and "not" which merely combine other terms, while categoremata belong to one of Aristotle's Categories and are genuine predicates. A treatise on "insolubles" or paradoxes like the Liar Paradox was also attributed to William of Sherwood.
Roger Bacon
Statue of Roger Bacon at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), also known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin: "Wondrous Doctor"), was an English Franciscan friar, who commented on Aristotle, Avicenna, and Averroes. His views are found in works like the Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium (1267).
Roger Bacon was highly influenced by Aristotle's Metaphysics, but his view on universals is debated among scholars, and so is resolved as "both ‘extreme-realism’ and proto-nominalism". He also wrote The Art and Science of Logic, and is the great British contributor to Aristotle's logic of the period, along with William of Sherwood.
The formal distinction is a distinction that is intermediate between a merely conceptual distinction, and a logical distinction that is fully real or mind-independent. Haecceity is the idea of "thisness," a concept which denotes the discrete qualities, properties or characteristics of a thing which make it a particular thing.
Thomas Wilton studied under Scotus. Walter Burley (c. 1275–1345) studied under Wilton. Burley was a noted logician.
He is perhaps best known for his principle of parsimony, famously known as Ockham's razor. This actual term is claimed not to appear in his writings, but rather summarizes the principle he expressed in passages such as Plurality must never be posited without necessity and It is futile to do with more things that which can be done with fewer. Generally it refers to distinguishing between two hypotheses, with the metaphor of a razor used either by "shaving away" unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions.
Ockham had followers like Robert Holcot (c. 1290–1349), Adam of Wodeham (1298–1358), and William Crathorn (fl. c. 1330). Holcot also known as Doctor firmus et indefatigabilis (Latin: "strong and tireless doctor") died of the Black plague. Walter Chatton (c. 1290–1343) was Ockham's intellectual rival. Crathorn and Chatton both criticized Aristotelian notions of space.
John Wycliffe (1328–1384) was one of the last scholastics, and an important predecessor of Protestantism. Wycliffe led the Lollards, who were opposed by scholastic Reginald Pecock (c. 1395–c. 1461), who was influenced by Holcot. German Reformation pioneer Martin Luther accepted in his Assertio that Wycliffe taught that "all events occur by absolute necessity."
There were British Renaissance logicians like Thomas Wilson, Ralph Lever, John Seton, John Sanderson, and Richard Crakanthorpe. Thomas Wilson (1524–1581) wrote Logique (1551) and The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), which have been called "the first complete works on logic and rhetoric in English". Ralph Lever (d. c. 1585) wrote The Arte of Reason, rightly termed, Witcraft (1573). The work of John Seton (c. 1498–1567) and John Sanderson (d. 1602) joined Wilson as the standard texts on logic for nearly a century. Richard Crakanthorpe (1567–1624) is alluded to in the novel Tristram Shandy.
Ramism
At Cambridge, William Temple (1555–1627) defended French logician, educational reformer, and Protestant convert Petrus Ramus against the attacks of Aristotelian and Neoplatonist Everard Digby (c. 1550–c. 1592). According to historian Thomas Fuller, nobody was "better skilled in Aristotle or a greater follower of Ramus" than George Downame (c. 1566—1634). Downame influenced Paradise Lost (1667) author John Milton (1608–1674), who also wrote Art of Logic (1672). Another Ramist was William Ames (1576–1633), especially influential in New England and Colonial America.
His dedication to experiment probably led to his death. He contracted pneumonia while stuffing a fowl with snow, in order to study the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. His posthumously published New Atlantis (1626) presents his vision of the future.
Wilkins was Oliver Cromwell's brother-in-law. William Petty (1623–1687) travelled with Cromwell's army in Ireland as physician-general and is best known for his work on early economics. Jonathan Goddard (1617–1675) was also a physician for Cromwell, one of those attending to him at his death. Alexander Bruce (1629–1681) served as a captain with the Royalist cavalry, fighting at the Battle of Worcester.
The Great Fire of London depicted by an unknown painter (1675)
In 1662, Parliamentarian Henry Oldenburg (c. 1618–1677) became secretary of the Royal Society. Royalist Walter Charleton (1619–1707) joined in 1663; he followed Frenchman Pierre Gassendi and was "the main conduit for the transmission of Epicurean ideas to England". Royalist John Evelyn (1620–1706), best known for his diary, also joined.
The Royal Society's journal Philosophical Transactions was established in 1665. Christopher Wren (1632–1723) is best known for his architecture done in the English Baroque style after the Great Fire of London (1666), which came soon after the Great Plague (1665-1666). Wren rebuilt 52 churches including St Paul's Cathedral. Wren was also a natural philosopher. His friend Robert Hooke (1635–1703) commented: "Since the time of Archimedes there scarce ever met in one man in so great perfection such a mechanical hand and so philosophical mind."
Although Hobbes was a champion of monarchy, he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
Benjamin Whichcote (1609– 1683) disagreed with total depravity. He was also a Platonist who called reason "the very voice of God." Ralph Cudworth (1617– 1688) was a leading opponent of Hobbes, known for his The True Intellectual System of the Universe (1678). Cudworth challenged Hobbes' determinism, believing in free will and a hegemonikon or command center of the mind and soul connecting it to the body, a notion borrowed from the Stoics.
Henry More (1614–1687) was a critic of Cartesianism. More rejected Cartesian dualism, arguing that spirit, like matter, must be extended in space, coining the terms fourth dimension and essential spissitude. He opposed the Cartesian view that animals were mere machines, asserting instead they possess immaterial but mortal souls.
Assertion of Liberty of Conscience by the Independents of the Westminster Assembly of Divines by John Rogers Herbert
Puritan Peter Sterry (1613–1672) was a follower of Whichcote and the chaplain for Robert Greville. Sterry was then chaplain for Oliver Cromwell, and a member of the Westminster Assembly.
Nathanael Culverwell (1619–1651) was an opponent of "father of English Deism" Herbert of Cherbury (1583–1648), author of De Veritate (1624). Culverwell in response wrote An Elegant and Learned Discourse of the Light of Nature (1654).
Anne Conway (1631–1679) was a vitalist critic of Descartes who wrote The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy (c. 1677). Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper called her "England's greatest female philosopher." Another was John Norris's correspondent Mary Astell (1666–1731), "the first English feminist".
British Empiricism
Isaac Newton
British empiricism refers to the philosophical tradition in the early modern era epitomized by the three philosophers John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
Newton had obtained his degree at Cambridge just before the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Soon after, he invented the infinitesimal calculus. In religion, Newton was a kind of NontrinitarianArian, who read John Biddle, "the father of English Unitarianism."
Locke further believed in the association of ideas. He thought there were simple ideas and complex ideas. Simple ideas are 'pure' and enter by the senses, while complex ideas are simple ideas combined together and related to form concepts using the abstracting activity of the mind.
Locke advanced an early theory of personal identity. He thought that our being the same person from one time to another consists, not in our having the same soul or the same body, but rather the same series of psychological connections, recognizing or remembering being the same thinking thing in different times and places.
Religion and Revolution
The Prince of Orange landing at Torbay, part of the Glorious Revolution, as depicted in an illustration by Johan Herman Isings.
Locke's patron's grandson was moral philosopher Lord Shaftesbury (1671–1713) , who was also influenced by the Cambridge Platonists. Shaftesbury influenced Joseph Butler (1692–1752), who along with Richard Bentley (1662–1742) and William Warburton (1698–1779), were opponents of deism.
George Berkeley (1685–1753) was a British empiricist, and an Irishman who served as Bishop of Cloyne from 1734 until his death. Berkeley was also a subjectiveidealist, who rejected Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities in A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710). Berkeley believed there is no such thing as matter or a mind-independent entity. This world was given regularity, where objects seem to exist even if one does not perceive them, by some other force, which Berkeley concluded was the mind of God.
Berkeley traveled to Rhode Island and influenced the philosophy of the American colonies. Berkeley also criticized the infinitesmal calculus in The Analyst (1734). After Berkeley, metaphysics was temporarily abandoned in Britain, with the exception of James Burnett (1714–1799).
Hume famously described the problem of induction. He argues that inductive reasoning cannot be rationally employed, since, in order to justify induction, one would either have to provide a sound deductive argument or an inductively strong argument. But there is no sound deductive argument for induction, and to ask for an inductive argument to justify induction would be to beg the question.
Hume's problem of causation is related to his problem of induction. He held that there is no empirical access to the supposed necessary connection between cause and effect. In seeking to justify the belief that A causes B, one might assert, in the past, B has always closely followed A in both space and time. But the special necessary connection that is supposed to be causation is never observed in experience, which is only a constant conjunction of events, with no necessity whatsoever. Hume's attack on causality was credited with waking German Immanuel Kant from his "dogmatic slumber."
Moral philosopher and economist Adam Smith
In personal identity, Hume was a bundle theorist, believing there is no robust self to which properties adhere, but only a bundle of perceptions. Hume also showed how one cannot deduce an 'ought' from an 'is'.
Smith studied moral philosophy at Glasgow and Oxford. After graduating, he delivered a series of successful public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments.
According to Reid, Hume's skepticism and Berkeley's idealism were intolerable consequences of Descartes and Locke's dogma of representationalism, which he called the "Way of Ideas." Reid states in any moment of veridical perception there is an object, a subject, and the act of perception. Reid doubts there is some further, fourth thing, the idea of the object in the subject's mind.
The 19th century is notable as seeing the end of the Georgian era (1714–1830) and nearly all of the Victorian era (1837–1901).
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory of normative ethics which holds that an act is morally right if and only if that act maximizes happiness or pleasure, or some other sense of utility or well-being. The British utilitarians were highly influenced by British empiricism.
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) is well known for beginning the tradition of classical utilitarianism in Britain. Bentham was influenced by Priestley, and derided natural law and natural rights as "nonsense upon stilts".
Bentham's views are said to be hedonistic, regarding pleasure as the only intrinsic good and pain as the only intrinsic evil. Utilitarianism was described by Bentham as "the greatest happiness or greatest felicity principle". Bentham held the felicific calculus should be used to determine the rightness and wrongness of acts, by measuring the amount of pleasure and pain, which he thought could be broken down into distinct units called hedons and dolors.
His students were James Mill, John Austin, and American John Neal. On his death, Bentham left instructions for his body to be dissected and then permanently preserved as an "auto-icon" (or self-image), which would be his memorial. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on public display in the entrance of the Student Centre at University College London (UCL).
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) the son of James, was influential in philosophy and politics. Mill continued Bentham's tradition of utilitarianism in works like On Liberty (1859) and Utilitarianism (1863). Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. Mill was influenced by French philosopher Auguste Comte, and so rejected Bentham's egoism. Mill also authored the inductive method of A System of Logic (1843).
Mill's wife was Harriet Taylor Mill (1807–1858). The most notable of Mill's many followers were Scotsman Alexander Bain and Henry Sidgwick.
Alexander Bain
Alexander Bain (1818–1903) advocated Mill's associationist theory of mind in works such as The Senses and the Intellect (1855) and The Emotions and the Will (1859). Bain started the journal Mind.
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) coined the term "survival of the fittest", and advocated social darwinism and classical liberalism. Spencer's father had been secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society. T. H. Huxley (1825–1895) became known as "Darwin's bulldog" and wrote Evolution and Ethics (1893), which states the task of morality is to counter the cruel natural order. He also coined the term agnosticism.
Leslie Stephen (1832–1904) joined the ethical movement. W. K. Clifford (1845–1879) was a kind of panpsychist who coined the term "mind-stuff". Arthur Eddington wrote in his book The Nature of the Physical World (1928) "The stuff of the world is mind-stuff."
British philosophy in the nineteenth century saw a revival of logic, in reaction to the anti-logical aspects of British empiricism. This was started by Richard Whately (1787–1863), who wrote Elements of Logic (1826).
Richard Whately's work led to controversy. On the one hand, argued by William Whewell, logic could not arrive at "new truths" and was therefore inferior to and distinct from scientific reasoning; on the other hand, argued by Sir William Hamilton, Whately's effort to equate logic to a "grammar for reasoning" was wrong and reductive. Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871) saw the utility of Whately's logic, and demanded inclusion of logic in the Cambridge curriculum.
Two Cambridge Apostles, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell, were brought up in this tradition and then reacted against it, pioneering analytic philosophy and leading the "revolt against idealism." According to Russell, by the end of the nineteenth century, "the leading academic philosophers, both in America and Britain, were largely Hegelian". There was also Canadian idealism.
Analytic philosophy has dominated the English-speaking world since the early 20th century. It sought to accommodate new developments in philosophy of language (known as the linguistic turn) and logic and mathematics. British logic was imported to Germany by Ernst Schröder and influenced professor Gottlob Frege, who made the most substantial advances in logic since Aristotle. Frege was also a platonist who argued against psychologism.
Moore was influential among other academic philosophers, and also for the Bloomsbury Group, which included John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946). Moore is known for his clear style and methodical approach; and was critical of philosophy for its lack of progress, in stark contrast to advances in natural science since the Renaissance.
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) was an advocate of process philosophy or the "philosophy of organism" in works like Process and Reality (1929), which sees the world as made up of events or processes, rather than substances or things. Whitehead asserted in his book The Concept of Nature (1920) that objects, what he referred to as "concresences", are a conjunction of events that maintain a permanence of character.
British pragmatism
F. C. S. Schiller (1864–1937) was a critic of both idealism and analytic philosophy, and influenced by American pragmatistWilliam James, calling his views "humanism". Schiller's first book was Riddles of the Sphinx (1891), and he was also a eugenicist.
Wittgenstein returned to Cambridge in 1929. Among others, Ramsey influenced Wittgenstein's radical shift to his later philosophy and theory of meaning as use exemplified by the posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953). Wittgenstein's later philosophy was propounded by the likes of John Wisdom (1904–1993) and Rush Rhees (1905–1989).
A. J. Ayer
Wittgenstein's ideas were influential on the Vienna Circle. A. J. Ayer (1910–1989) was the first British philosopher to promote the Vienna Circle's philosophy of logical positivism and its doctrine of verificationism, particularly in his books Language, Truth and Logic (1936) and The Problem of Knowledge (1956). Ayer also advocated the ethical theory of emotivism, also known as the hurrah/boo theory, according to which valuing judgments expressed the attitude of the speaker.
Ordinary language philosophy
Influenced by the later Wittgenstein, Oxford ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school that approaches traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings that philosophers develop by forgetting what words mean in their everyday use.
Wedding of George III and Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, oil sketch by Sir Joshua Reynolds (c. 1761). According to Austin's theory, when couples at a wedding say "I do", they are not using language to describe a wedding; they are using it to indulge in a wedding.
This approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories, in favour of close attention to detail. Sometimes also called "Oxford philosophy", it is generally associated with the work of a number of mid-century Oxford professors: mainly J. L. Austin, but also Gilbert Ryle, and P. F. Strawson. It was a major philosophic school between 1930 and 1970.
Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976) in The Concept of Mind (1949), criticized Cartesiandualism, arguing in favor of disposing of "Descartes' myth" of the ghost in the machine by recognizing "category errors". Ryle sees Descartes' error as similar to saying one sees the campus, buildings, faculty, students, and so on, but still goes on to ask "Where is the university?"
P. F. Strawson (1919–2006) wrote the article "On Referring" (1950), a criticism of Russell's theory of descriptions. On Strawson's account, the use of a description presupposes the existence of the object fitting the description. In his book Individuals (1959), Strawson examines our conceptions of basic particulars.
Tim Crane (b. 1962) defends anti-physicalism. A number of British philosophers are panpsychists. Timothy Sprigge (1932–2007) defended a panpsychist version of British idealism. P. F. Strawson's son Galen Strawson (b. 1952) is a panpsychist. Philip Goff (b. 1978) defends panpsychism.
Christian philosophy
Richard Swinburne is a Christian philosopher.
Recent British philosophers have been particularly active in the philosophy of religion. Antony Flew (1923–2010) notably converted to Christianity from atheism. The Handbook of Anglican Theologians, described existentialist John Macquarrie (1919–2007) as "unquestionably Anglicanism's most distinguished systematic theologian in the second half of the 20th century." John Hick (1922–2012) advocated religious pluralism. Don Cupitt (1934–2025) was a "radical theologian".
Richard Swinburne (b. 1934) is an Oxford professor and Eastern Orthodox convert who wrote a trilogy of books arguing for God, The Coherence of Theism (1977), The Existence of God (1979), and Faith and Reason (1981). He is notable for his belief that God's existence is contingent rather than necessary (it is possible God does not exist), but that nonetheless He does exist as a brute fact.
John Haldane (b. 1954) is a Catholic Thomist. A student and friend of Wittgenstein, Elizabeth Anscombe (1919–2001) and her husband Peter Geach (1916–2013) were also Catholics. Geach defends relative identity so as to defend the Trinity. Anthony Kenny worked with Geach. Kenny was introduced to Wittgenstein's work by Anscombe, and became a leading scholar, the executor of Wittgenstein's literary estate.
Swansea school
Timothy Williamson is an epistemologist.
The analytic philosophy of religion has been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of Søren Kierkegaard. Wittgenstein fought for the Austrian army in World War I and came upon a copy of Russian Leo Tolstoy's The Gospel in Brief (1896). He subsequently underwent some kind of religious conversion. "Swansea school" philosophers such as Peter Winch (1926–1997) and D. Z. Phillips (1934–2006), among others, founded a school of religious thought based on Wittgenstein. The name "contemplative philosophy" was coined by Phillips in Philosophy's Cool Place (1999), after a passage quoted in Wittgenstein's Culture and Value (1980).
Epistemology
Timothy Williamson (b. 1955) argues knowledge is sui generis and for a "knowledge first" epistemology in Knowledge and Its Limits (2000). Duncan Pritchard (b. 1974) advances Wittgensteinian hinge epistemology, which stems from Wittgenstein's On Certainty. John Hawthorne (b. 1964) defends a view according to which knowledge is dependent on the subject's interests; he calls this view "subject-sensitive invariantism". Miranda Fricker (b. 1966) coined the term epistemic injustice.
Reasons and Persons (1984) by Derek Parfit (1942–2017) has been described as the most significant work of moral philosophy since the 1800s. It is also influential in discussions of personal identity, with thought experiments on teleportation and the fission and fusion of persons. Bernard Williams (1929–2003) was also a moral philosopher, who coined the term moral luck and advocated a kind of moral relativism. Williams also influentially challenged Locke's view on personal identity in "The Self and the Future" (1970).
Simon Blackburn advances quasi-realism.
J. O. Urmson (1915–2012) gave his own "grading theory" in "On Grading" (1950) and was admiring but critical of emotivism in The Emotive Theory of Ethics (1968). R. M. Hare (1919–2002) is best known for his development of emotivism into prescriptivism and for his defence of preference utilitarianism.
↑cf. Genesis 1:3 "And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light".
↑According to Roger Bacon, Sherwood was among "the more famous wise men of Christendom", of whom he names another as Albertus Magnus. Bacon judged Sherwood to be "much wiser than Albert".
↑The words often attributed to Occam: entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem ("entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity") are absent in his extant works; This particular phrasing comes from Irishman John Punch who used it in describing a "common axiom" (axioma vulgare) of the Scholastics.
↑However, other scholars now dispute this characterization: according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy he maintained "simultaneously the necessity of all that happens and human freedom (cf. Tractatus de universalibus, ch. 14, pp. 333–47); and many times he affirms that it would be heretical to say that all things happen by absolute necessity..."
↑In 1661, Glanvill predicted "To converse at the distance of the Indes by means of sympathetic conveyances may be as natural to future times as to us is a literary correspondence."
↑This influenced several fields to undertake what is called a performative turn.
↑This increased interest in virtue ethics has been dubbed by some the "aretaic turn".
References
↑Matthews, Kenneth (1943). British Philosophers. Great Britain: William Collins. p.7.
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↑Guarino, T. G. (2022). The Unchanging Truth of God? Crucial Philosophical Issues for Theology. United States: Catholic University of America Press. p. 23
↑Dugdale, W. (1849). Monasticon Anglicanum: A History of the Abbies and Other Monasteries, Hospitals, Frieries, and Cathedral and Collegiate Churches, with Their Dependencies, in England and Wales ... Originally Published in Latin. United Kingdom: (n.p.). p. 464
↑The Registers of Walter Giffard, Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1265-6, and of Henry Bowett, Bishop of Bath and Wells, 1401-7. (1899). United Kingdom: subscribers only. p. 89
↑The Victoria History of the County of Surrey. (1912). United Kingdom: A. Constable. p. 93
↑Lo Bello, Anthony (22 April 2024). "Robert of Chester". The commentary of Al-Nayrizi on Book I of Euclid's Elements of geometry, with an introduction on the transmission of Euclid's Elements in the Middle Ages. Boston: Brill Academic. pp.41–44. ISBN978-0-391-04192-9.
12Liebeschuetz, Hans (1950). Medieval Humanism in the life and writings of John of Salisbury. London: The Warburg Institute, University of London. p.1.
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↑Dales, R. C. (1995). The problem of the rational soul in the thirteenth century. Germany: E.J. Brill. p. 47
↑Cullen, Christopher M. “Alexander of Hales,” in Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, edited by Jorge J.E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, 104–109.
↑Borchert, D. M. (2006). Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Priori-Brownson. United States: Macmillan Reference. p. 113
↑Crombie, A. C. Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971
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↑Klima, Gyula (2006), "Syncategoremata", in Keith Brown (editor-in-chief), Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Second Edition, volume 12, pp. 353–356, Oxford: Elsevier
↑Read, Stephen and Paul Vincent Spade, "Insolubles", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2025 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2025/entries/insolubles/>.
123Bridges, J. H., Jones, H. G. (1914). The Life & Work of Roger Bacon: An Introduction to the Opus Majus. United Kingdom: Williams & Norgate. p. 2
↑"The Art and Science of Logic: A Translation of the Summulae dialectices with notes and introduction by Roger Bacon, and: On Signs (Opus maius, Part 3, Chapter 2) by Roger Bacon (review)". Journal of the History of Philosophy. 52 (4): 843–844. October 2014. doi:10.1353/hph.2014.0077.
↑Clegg, B. (2013). Roger Bacon: The First Scientist. United Kingdom: Little, Brown Book Group.
↑'Sentences of Peter Lombard', Quaestiones et decisiones in quattuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (ed. Lugd., 1495), i, dist. 27, qu. 2, K)
↑"Ockham's razor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
↑Summa Totius Logicae, i. 12, Thorburn, 1918, pp.352–53; Kneale and Kneale, 1962, p.243.)
↑Flew, Antony (1979). A Dictionary of Philosophy. London: Pan Books. p. 253.
↑Alistair Cameron Crombie (1959), Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Vol. 2, p. 30.
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