Mirrors for princes or mirrors of princes (Latin: specula principum) are books that most frequently take the form of textbooks for the instruction of monarchs on successful governance and behavior. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to assume power.
The Latin term speculum principum appears as early as the 12th century and may have been used even earlier. It may have developed from the popular speculum literature popular from the 12th to 16th century, focusing on knowledge of a particular subject matter.
One of the earliest true writers on this genre is Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem (c. 9th century). Prior to Sedulius, other writers merely touched on the idea, as "proto" writers of this genre. Possibly the best known European "mirror" is The Prince (c. 1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.
Dio Chrysostom, The First Discourse on Kingship, The Second Discourse on Kingship, The Third Discourse on Kingship, and The Fourth Discourse on Kingship
Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine (c. 339 AD) may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy.
Ambrose, De officiis ministrorum (c. 391 AD) – although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original.
De duodecim abusivis saeculi, 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent.
Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include:
Agobard of Lyons, his letters, A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires and the Liber Apologeticus. (833 AD)
Dhuoda, (841–843) Liber manualis, written for her son William.
Sedulius Scottus, De rectoribus christianis 'On Christian rulers' (c.855–9), addressed to King Lothar II of Lotharingia.
Hincmar of Reims, De ordine palatii 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace.
Irish texts
see De duodecim abusivis saeculi above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures.
Audacht Morainn ('The Testament of Morann'), written c.700, an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'. The legendary wise judge Morann Mac Máin is said to have sent advice to Feradach Finnfechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara.
Tecosca Cormaic, 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters.
Vincent of Beauvais, De eruditione filiorum nobilium = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (c.1250).
Guibert of Tournai, Eruditio regum et principum = 'The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for Louis IX.
Guibert of Tournai, De modo addiscendi = 'On the Method of Learning' (c.1260) written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of Guy of Flanders.
The III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince (c.1350), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King John II of France.
Philip of Leyden, De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler") (c.1355), dedicated to William V of Holland
Duarte of Portugal, Leal Conselheiro (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal.
Andreas Pannonius, Libellus de virtutibus Matthiae Corvino dedicatus (1467), dedicated to Matthias Corvinus, and Libellus de virtutibus Herculi Estensi dedicatus (1471), dedicated to Ercole I d'Este.
Phillipus de Bergamo, Spiegel der regyrunge (15th century) translated into middle German
Eyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede, (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or city
Von der regeronge der stede, (15th century) text written on how to govern a city
Renaissance
John Skelton, Speculum principis (1501), written for the future Henry VIII. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum.
Antonio de Guevara, Relox de príncipes (1529), inspired by and dedicated to Charles V, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch.
Ibn Ẓafar al-Ṣiqillī's (12th century) Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'udwan al-atba 'Consolation for the Ruler during the Hostility of Subjects'; published in English (1852) as, Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort
Bahr Al-Fava'id 'Sea of (Precious) Virtues', compiled in the 12th century.
Ibn Arabi, Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah) (1194–1201 AD/590-598AH)
Saadi's Gulistan, chapter I, "The Manners of Kings", (1258, Persian).
Hussain Vaiz Kashifi's Aklhaq i Muhsini (composed in Persian AH 900/ AD 1495), translated into English as "The Morals of the Beneficent" in the mid 19th century by Henry George Keene
Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha'rani (1540s AD/946AH) "Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs"
Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521), The teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie, one of the earliest literary works in Wallachia
Mikhail Lomonosov, (1760) Panegyric to the Sovereign Emperor, Peter the Great
Chinese texts
Ancient
Tao Te Ching – Lao Tzu Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC)
Mencius – moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC)
Mirrors For Princes is the name of a 2010 cinematic work by Lior Shamriz. Parts of the text were based on the Instructions of Shuruppak and other Sumerian literature.
Anton, Hans Hubert (1968). Fürstenspiegel und Herrscherethos in der Karolingerzeit. Bonner Historische Forschungen (in German). Vol.32. Bonn: L. Röhrscheid. OCLC1979986.
Lambton, Ann K.S. (1980). "Islamic Mirrors for Princes". Theory and Practice in Medieval Persian Government. VI. London: 419–442.
Lasine, Stuart (2020). "Samuel-Kings as a Mirror for Princes: Parental Education and Judean Royal Families". Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament. 34 (1): 74–88. doi:10.1080/09018328.2020.1801933. S2CID221299605.
