List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union

Map of the international boundaries after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991

This article provides a list of conflicts that have occurred in the territory of the former Soviet Union. In 1991, the dissolution of the Soviet Union resulted in the emergence of 15 post-Soviet states: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

Background and causes

Soviet nationalities policy

The post-Soviet conflicts have their roots in the Soviet nationalities policy. The collapse of the Soviet Union saw the emergence of the 15 new states, although interethnic conflicts erupted in many of them shortly afterwards. The causes of these conflicts can be found in the legacy of the Soviet ethno-territorial federalism. The Soviet Union largely operated as an ethno-federation — designed to manage ethnic diversity in the centralized socialist state. Granting autonomies, legal classifications and bureaucratic segmentation institutionalized ethnic divisions. Even though the constituent units of the Soviet Union were actually deprived of meaningful sovereignty, the Soviet structures still created durable divisions along ethnic lines between groups and path dependencies which made the conflicts more likely.

The Soviet ethno-federal policies saw the creation of the union republics, the autonomous republics and autonomous oblasts. Their autonomy was only nominal, and all were subject to the strict central rule through the Communist Party. However, the arrangement still created the symbolic representation and mechanism for elite co-option, which led to the political and resource competition based on ethnic lines. The Korenizatsiia policy saw the emergence of the ethnic elites which operated through their own "ethnic machines". Even after Joseph Stalin reversed the Korenizatsiia, the structures still remained in place.

The Soviet Union conducted the process of national delimitation, which proceeded based on the political rather than ethnographic logic. In particular, the Moscow sought to prevent any group from consolidating independent power. The fragmentation brought by national delimitation created ambigious boundaries, cross-cutting identities and demographic inconsistencies. This laid foundation of the territorial disputes. The ethno-federal Soviet policies "planted the seeds of secession by creating quasi-sovereign units with symbolic and legal legitimacy, even in the absence of actual autonomy". After 1991, the autonomous structures became the rallying points for the separatist claims.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the post-Soviet republics inherited the Soviet ethno-federal framework, along with its unresolved contradictions. The collapse did not eliminate the system of institutionalized ethnicity, but decentralized it, leading to political actors reinterpreting the Soviet-era structures to pursue new goals. The institutions that "had once administered identity now became arenas of identity contestation". The Soviet-era autonomies served "as a ready-made institutional template for political mobilization and international appeals". The case of Nagorno-Karabakh showcased the contradictory policies of the Soviet system — a majority-Armenian region was placed within Azerbaijan, leading to both sides claiming legitimacy based on the different Soviet principles.

The Soviet ethnofederalism created territorial units which might not have been legally autonomous or administratively distinct but "were marked by the institutionalization of ethnicity and the presence of political elites capable of mobilizing that identity". However, the Soviet legacy did not produce conflict in all cases deterministically. For example, Tatarstan negotiated a treaty with Moscow to gain wide autonomy instead of pushing for independence. Thus, while the Soviet design did not make the conflict inevitable, it "structured the menu of options available to political actors". In particular, the likelihood of conflict depended on three conditions: ethnic mobilization, elite leadership, and external support. While the Soviet legacy provided preconditions for conflicts, these conditions alone were not sufficient, being dependent upon elite strategies, external actors, and state responses.

Russian interference

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has used the post-Soviet conflicts as a tool in its hybrid warfare strategy to establish a sphere of influence over the former Soviet Union. The weak Soviet Union and then Russia first sought to prevent the Soviet republics from seceding, and then to impede their state-building when the collapse became inevitable after the August 1991 coup attempt. Russia has used the strategy to back the separatist movements in many cases to achieve its goals. Through this strategy, Russia weakened a number of post-Soviet states to the point of forcing them back into the Russian sphere of influence by joining the Commonwealth of Independent States. Russia also assumed the role of a mediator as the West in the 1990s was more concerned with the Yugoslav Wars and sought to keep Soviet nuclear arsenal under centralized Russian control. Russia is interested in perpetuating unresolved frozen conflicts to exert control over the territories involved. Possessing military and other instruments in these territories, Russia can manipulate the manifestations of the conflict to influence the situation towards the peace or war. Additionally, Russia uses the fragile security environment as its lever of influence.

State weakness and elite disunity

The weakness of newly emerged states following the collapse of the Soviet Union and elite disunity have been cited as other causes of conflict. The places that managed to preserve elite cohesion generally did not experience internal conflicts and managed to maintain or rebuild state capacity. By contrast, the places where elites were unable to preserve cohesion descended into violence. Elite disunity undermined the ability of post-Soviet states to properly address internal issues and preserve their monopoly on the use of force. This depended on the ability of the former nomenklatura and new elites to form coalitions, as well as the degree of internal fragmentation among the elites. State weakness encouraged separatist rebellions, especially given the institutionalization of ethnicity within the Soviet Union, as every movement that rebelled violently against the central government held titular subrepublican status. Meanwhile, state weakness rendered the usual asymmetry between states and rebel movements irrelevant in post-Soviet conflicts, making both function as "start-up firms."

List

Central Asia

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Tajikistani Civil War 5 May 199227 June 1997Began when ethnic groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan, which were underrepresented in the ruling elite, rose up against the national government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, in which people from the Leninabad and Kulob regions dominated. The war ended with the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan and the Moscow Protocol.50,000–100,000 killed
Batken conflict Kyrgyzstan
Russia (material support)
Uzbekistan (military support)		 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan 30 July 1999 27 September 1999 Armed clashes between militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Armed Forces of Kyrgyzstan1,182 killed
Andijan massacre
13 May 2005 Protest and government massacre in the city of Andijan in Uzbekistan187–1,500 killed
2010 Kyrgyz Revolution SDPK
Respublika
Ata-Meken
Ar-Namys
Ata-Zhurt
United Kyrgyzstan		 6 April 2010 15 April 2010 Also known as the People's April Revolution, the Melon Revolution or the April Events. Began with the ousting of Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev in the capital Bishkek. The violence ultimately led to the consolidation of a new parliamentary system in Kyrgyzstan.400+ killed
2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes
19 May 2010June 2010Clashes between ethnic Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in southern Kyrgyzstan, primarily in the cities of Osh and Jalal-Abad, in the aftermath of the ouster of former President Kurmanbek Bakiyev on April 7.393–893 killed
Insurgency in Gorno-Badakhshan (2010–2015) 19 September 20101 September 2015Sporadic fighting in Tajikistan between rebel and government forces.191–206 killed
Zhanaozen massacre Oil workers 16 December 2011 17 December 2011 Labor protest and government massacre in the city of Zhanaozen in Kazakhstan14+ killed
2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes Ethnic Dungans Ethnic Kazakhs 5 February 2020 8 February 2020 Clashes between ethnic Kazakhs and ethnic Dungans (a Muslim group with Chinese origins) in the village of Masanchi within the Korday District of Kazakhstan.11 killed
2020 Kyrgyz Revolution
5 October 2020 15 October 2020 Revolution caused by alleged electoral fraud in the October 2020 Kyrgyz parliamentary election, government corruption, government response to the COVID-19 pandemic and arrest and conviction of former president Almazbek Atambayev on corruption charges. 1 killed
2021 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan28 April 20211 May 2021Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan over water dispute.45 killed
2022 Kazakh unrest Government of Kazakhstan
CSTO		 Kazakh opposition
Protesters		2 January 202211 January 2022Protests across Kazakhstan that were sparked by an abrupt increase of gas prices, but have escalated into general protests. Kazakhstan's government has requested CSTO assistance in quelling the protests.257 killed
2022 Karakalpak protests  Karakalpakstan protesters1 July 20223 July 2022Over proposed amendments by President Shavkat Mirziyoyev to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. A day after protests began in the Karakalpak capital of Nukus, Mirziyoyev withdrew the constitutional amendments. The Karakalpak government said that protesters had attempted to storm government buildings.21 killed
2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes Kyrgyzstan
27 January 202220 September 2022Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan146 killed
Afghanistan–Tajikistan border skirmishes
15 May 2022 Present Occasional skirmishes have occurred along the Afghanistan–Tajikistan border between the Taliban-led Afghan Armed Forces and Tajikistani Border Troops. 8–10 killed

Caucasus

North Caucasus

Map of the Caucasus, showing unrecognized breakaway states (Abkhazia and South Ossetia) within Georgia as a result of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. These areas are regarded by the international community as being occupied by Russia.
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
East Prigorodny conflict North Ossetia
Russian Federation		 Ingushetia Ingush rebels30 October 19926 November 1992Inter-ethnic conflict in the Eastern part of the Prigorodny district.600 killed
First Chechen War
11 December 199431 August 1996Russian troops invaded after Chechnya declared independence, but withdrew in 1996 leading to a de facto Chechen independence.46,500 killed
War in Dagestan (1999) 7 August 199914 September 1999The Islamic International Brigade invaded the neighbouring Russian republic of Dagestan in support of the Shura of Dagestan separatist movement.2,775 killed
Second Chechen War
7 August 199916 April 2009Russia restores federal control of Chechnya.20,500 killed
Insurgency in Ingushetia
21 July 200719 May 2015Separatist insurgency in Ingushetia.871 killed
Insurgency in the North Caucasus
16 April 200919 December 2017Separatist insurgency in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other parts of the North Caucasus region.3,500 killed
Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus
20 December 2017PresentOngoing terror activity of the Islamic State branch in the North Caucasus after the insurgency of the Caucasus Emirate.250+ killed

South Caucasus

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Foreign groups:
 20 February 198812 May 1994The secessionist conflict leads to de facto independence of Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic).28,000–38,000 killed
South Ossetia war (1991–1992) Georgia (country) Georgia (1992) 5 January 199124 June 1992The separatist conflict leads to South Ossetia's de facto independence from Georgia.1,000 killed
Georgian Civil War
Georgia (country) Pro-Shevardnadze forces
 22 December 199131 December 1993A civil war leads to the overthrow of the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia and his replacement with new President Eduard Shevardnadze.2,000 killed
War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) Georgia
14 August 1992 30 September 1993 Abkhaz separatism leads to the de facto independence of Abkhazia from Georgia.10,000–30,000 killed
1993 Azerbaijani coup d'état
  • Huseynov militia
  • Supported by:
  • Russia
  • Azerbaijani Government
  • APFP
 4 June 1993 15 June 1993 A mutiny against Azerbaijani President Abulfaz Elchibey replaces him with Heydar Aliyev Unknown
1994 Azerbaijani coup attempt
  • Huseynov militia
  • Supported by:
  • Russia
 3 October 1994 5 October 1994 The government troops thwart a coup led by Prime Minister Surat Huseynov against President Heydar Aliyev after he signed a deal with the Western consortium to explore three oil fields in the Caspian Sea, which angered Russia. Huseynov previously led a coup in 1993 to install Aliyev in power. None
1995 Azerbaijani coup attempt
13 March 1995 17 March 1995 A failed attempt to reinstall former president Abulfaz Elchibey 31 killed
War in Abkhazia (1998) Abkhazia 18 May 199826 May 1998Ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia launched an insurgency against the Abkhazian secessionist government.100 killed
1998 Georgian attempted mutiny
18 October 1998 19 October 1998 An abortive mutiny led by pro-Gamsakhurdia officers from the Senaki Military Brigade to remove new President Eduard Shevardnadze from power. 5 killed
2001 Kodori crisis
4 October 200118 October 2001Georgian guerrillas unsuccessfully try to regain control over Abkhazia with the help of Chechen fighters.At least 40 killed
Pankisi Gorge crisis
November 2000October 2002An incursion by Al-Qaeda forces into Georgia on behalf of Chechen rebels fighting in the North Caucasus. They were forced out in 2004 by Georgian forces with American and Russian backing.Unknown
2004 South Ossetian clashes Georgia (country) Georgia 7 July 20045 November 2004Clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian troops result in several deaths.22 killed
2006 Kodori crisis Georgia (country) Monadire 22 July 200628 July 2006Georgian police and special forces drive a local rebellious militia out of the Georgian-controlled Kodori Valley in Abkhazia.1 killed
Russo-Georgian War Georgia 1 August 200816 August 2008A war between Georgia on one side and Russia, South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other side confirms the de facto independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and leads to their recognition by Russia and Nicaragua.500 killed
2009 Georgian mutiny Mutineers from the Mukhrovani Separate Tank Battalion 5 May 20095 May 2009An alleged abortive mutiny by a Georgian Army tank battalion based in Mukhrovani village with a goal of removing President Saakashvili from power.None killed
2010 Mardakert clashes Azerbaijan 18 June 20101 September 2010Sporadic border war on the Armenian–Azerbaijan border and at the line of contact between the Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan.7–8 killed
2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Azerbaijan 1 April 20165 April 2016Armenian and Azerbaijani forces fight a four-day long conflict along the border of the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh. Azerbaijani forces make minor territorial gains, some of which are retaken by Armenian forces before the end of the conflict.400–1,600 killed
July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes Azerbaijan Armenia 12 July 202016 July 2020Armenian and Azerbaijani forces engage in border clashes along the Tavush Province of Armenia and Tovuz District of Azerbaijan. The death of Azerbaijani major general Polad Hashimov sparks the July 2020 Azerbaijani protests. Turkey and Azerbaijan organize large-scale military exercises following the clashes, and tensions persist until the beginning of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War 2 months later.29–133 killed
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
27 September 202010 November 2020Azerbaijan retakes most of the territories previously controlled by the Republic of Artsakh. Russian peacekeepers introduced into the remaining disputed area.7,000 killed
Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis Azerbaijan Armenia 12 May 2021PresentBorder clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia.353 killed
Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan
12 December 202230 September 2023 Azerbaijan blockades the Republic of Artsakh.Unknown
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan Artsakh 19 September 2023 20 September 2023Azerbaijan launches an attack on the Republic of Artsakh after nine months of blockade. The Artsakh Defence Army disbands, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agrees to dissolve itself entirely by January 1, 2024, and almost the entire population of Artsakh flees to Armenia.200 killed
Islamic State insurgency in Azerbaijan
2 July 2019Present An low-level insurgency in Azerbaijan, mainly the Qusar District. 1-8 killed

Eastern Europe

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Gagauzia conflict Gagauz Republic
12 November 1989 14 January 1995 Ended in the reintegration of Gagauzia into Moldova as an autonomous region. Unknown
Transnistria War
2 November 1990 21 July 1992 Separatism in Transnistria leads to its de-facto secession from Moldova with Russian backing.1,000 killed
1993 Russian constitutional crisis
Support:
 21 September 19934 October 1993Political stand-off between the Russian president and the Russian parliament that was resolved by using military force.147 killed
Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity
21 November 2013 22 February 2014Euromaidan is the name given to civil unrest that started when the Ukrainian government cancelled an association agreement with the EU in favour of closer ties with Russia. The protests escalated and led to the Revolution of Dignity, which toppled the Ukrainian government.121 killed
Russian invasion of Crimea 27 February 2014  26 March 2014 In February 2014, Russia invaded Crimea. In March, following the takeover of Crimea by pro-Russian separatists and Russian Armed Forces, a referendum (not recognised by the new Ukrainian authorities) was held on the issue of reunification with Russia. This took place in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity. Russia then annexed Crimea on 18 March.3 killed
2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine Donetsk People's RepublicLuhansk People's Republic Pro-Russian separatists
Russia		 Ukraine 23 February 2014 2 May 2014 As a result of the revolution in Kyiv, a pro-Russian unrest in the eastern regions of the country escalated into mass protests and violence between those supporting and opposing the new authorities. In Crimea, the events served as a pretext for a Russian annexation of the region. In Donbas, the situation quickly escalated into a war. Protests in other regions included seizure of government buildings in Kharkiv and deadly clashes in Odesa.Unknown
War in Donbas Donetsk PR
Luhansk PR
Russia

Ukraine

 12 April 2014 24 February 2022 As a result of the unrest, a full-fledged war began in the Ukrainian Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, known collectively as Donbas. The separatist republics were proclaimed and captured a strip of land on the border with Russia. Major combat ended with the signing of the second Minsk agreements in early 2015, with a stalemate lasting until the start of the full-scale invasion by Russia of February 2022.14,000 killed
Russian invasion of Ukraine  Ukraine 24 February 2022 PresentOn 24 February 2022, the War in Donbas escalated when Russian government forces began bombing Ukrainian cities. After the bombings, Russian troops launched an operation on Ukrainian soil and began sending in troops on Ukrainian territory, launching a 'full-scale' invasion. This invasion was supported militarily by the separatist Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic and non-militarily by Belarus. Ukraine received military aid from the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and other countries from the Western world. On 30 September 2022, Russia, amid an ongoing invasion, annexed four oblasts of Ukraine – Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia and Kherson, which were not fully under Russian control at the time. The annexation is the largest in Europe since World War II, surpassing Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea.See fatalities
2023 Belgorod Oblast incursions  Russia
  •  Ukraine (alleged by Russia)
 22 May 202317 December 2023Pro-Ukrainian armed rebels invasion of RussiaUnknown
Wagner Group rebellion  PMC Wagner 23 June 202324 June 2023Mutiny of Wagner PMC against the Russian government15–31 killed
March 2024 western Russia incursion Russia 12 March 20247 April 2024Pro-Ukrainian Groups And Russian Opposition Groups Invading Western Russia In The Belgorod And Kursk OblastsUnknown (both sides casualties are highly inflated)
Kursk offensive (2024–2025) Ukraine 6 August 202416 March 2025Ukrainian occupation of Kursk OblastAround 20,000-30,000 Killed and Wounded

References

  1. ↑ Marsili 2025, p. 56.
  2. 1 2 Marsili 2025, p. 58.
  3. 1 2 Marsili 2025, p. 59.
  4. 1 2 Marsili 2025, pp. 62–63.
  5. 1 2 Marsili 2025, p. 64.
  6. ↑ Marsili 2025, pp. 63–65.
  7. ↑ Subotic & Cioculescu 2023, p. 147.
  8. ↑ Subotic & Cioculescu 2023, pp. 149–150.
  9. ↑ Subotic 2023, p. 151.
  10. ↑ Subotic & Cioculescu 2023, p. 156.
  11. ↑ Smith Benjamin, Separatist Conflict in the Former Soviet Union and Beyond: How Different Was Communism?, World Politics, Volume 65, Issue 2, April 2013, p. 357-359
  12. ↑ "Tajikistan: President Meets With Popular Front Commanders". Radio Liberty Archives. 9 July 1997. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  13. ↑ "Американцы боятся белорусских танков. Белоруссия американских санкций не боится" [Americans are afraid of Belarusian tanks. Belarus is not afraid of American sanctions]. Lenta.ru (in Russian). 1 March 2002. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021.
  14. ↑ Jonson, Lena (25 August 2006). Tajikistan in the New Central Asia. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781845112936. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  15. ↑ Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror, by Rohan Gunaratna, pg. 169
  16. ↑ "Iran dismisses Tajik civil war claims as attempt to damage ties". Reuters. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
  17. ↑ "A Thaw Between Tajikistan and Iran, But Challenges Remain". Jamestown. Retrieved 10 July 2019. Fearing a continuity of Soviet-era policies, Iran supported the Islamic and nationalist opposition during the civil war.
  18. ↑ Abdulfattoh, Shafiev (February 2016). "Iran and Tajikistan: A Story of Love and Hate" (PDF). Central Asia Policy Brief. 34. At the end of 1992, Tajikistan entered into a bloody civil war. Tehran gave refuge and support to the leaders of the Democratic-Islamic coalition of the Tajik opposition, and was therefore considered to be a pro-Islamic actor. However, it also contributed a critical role in helping peace discussions: Tehran hosted several rounds of the Tajik peace negotiations in 1994, 1995, and 1997, bringing both sides to the discussion table. President Rahmon paid an official visit to Tehran in 1995 and opened an embassy there. But seen from Dushanbe, Moscow was a more reliable ally than Tehran, and any kind of pan-Persian nationalism was rapidly shut down by the authorities.
  19. ↑ Ahmad, Majidyar. "Tajikistan Accuses Iran of Sponsoring Terrorism, Restricts Iranian Organizations' Activities". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 9 August 2017. Tajikistan has accused Iran of having played a subversive role in the country's civil war in the 1990s by sending terrorists to the Central Asian republic, the latest sign of deteriorating relations between the two countries.
  20. ↑ Tajikistan Civil War Global Security
  21. ↑ Epkenhans, Tim (2016). The Origins of the Civil War in Tajikistan: Nationalism, Islamism, and Violent Conflict in Post-Soviet Space. ISBN 978-1-4985-3278-5. "killed approximately 40,000-100,000 people and displaced more than one million."
  22. ↑ "UNMOT". Archived from the original on 16 April 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2026.
  23. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan Marks the 15th Anniversary of the April Revolution". Ferghana Information Agency (Moscow). 7 April 2025. Archived from the original on 8 April 2025. Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  24. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: Justice Elusive 10 Years On | Human Rights Watch". 9 June 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2026.
  25. ↑ "Kyrgyz Authorities Raid Uzbek Village in South". Voice of America. 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  26. ↑ Schwirtz, Michael (11 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan Fighting Poses Challenge to Government". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  27. ↑ Loiko, Sergei L. (15 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan riots: Kyrgyzstan will get aid, no troops from regional security group". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  28. ↑ "Turkey says backs Kyrgyzstan's territorial integrity | Diplomacy". World Bulletin. 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  29. ↑ Dougherty, Jill (16 June 2010). "U.S. mulls more help for Kyrgyzstan, rules out unilateral action". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  30. ↑ "The Associated Press: Mobs burn villages, slaughter Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan". Retrieved 15 June 2010.[dead link]
  31. ↑ "Mass Exodus as Death Toll Rises in Kyrgyzstan's Restive South - News from Antiwar.com". News.antiwar.com. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  32. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: Ferghana.Ru sources confirm the involvement of Tajik contractors in the Osh massacre". Ferghana Information Agency (Moscow). 15 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  33. ↑ "Kyrgyz police arrest riot suspects : Voice of Russia". 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  34. 1 2 "A Thomson Reuters Foundation Service". AlertNet. Archived from the original on 27 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  35. ↑ Orange, Richard (17 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan troubles to spur rise of al Qaeda in Central Asia". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  36. ↑ Schwirtz, Michael (14 June 2010). "Russia Weighs Pleas to Step in as Uzbeks Flee Kyrgyzstan". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  37. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: State of emergency imposed after ethnic violence kills two, wounds dozens | Spero News". Speroforum.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  38. ↑ "Leading News Resource of Pakistan". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  39. ↑ "ReliefWeb t Document t Provisional Government Grappling with Simmering Ethnic Tension in Kyrgyzstan". Reliefweb.int. 25 May 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  40. 1 2 "Uzbek troops leave Kyrgyzstan". United Press International. 3 June 2010. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  41. ↑ Najibullah, Farangis. "Uzbek, Kyrgyz, And Tajik Lives Collide in Sokh – Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 2010". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  42. ↑ "eng.24.kg". eng.24.kg. Archived from the original on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  43. ↑ "What's behind the pullout of the Uzbek forces from Sokh?". EurasiaNet.org. 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  44. ↑ ВААЛЬ, ТАМАРА (27 March 2020). "25 человек задержали по подозрению в массовых беспорядках в Кордайском районе – Аналитический интернет-журнал Vласть". vlast.kz (in Russian). Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  45. ↑ "Число погибших из-за массовых беспорядков на юге Казахстана выросло до 11 человек". Interfax (in Russian). 13 February 2020.
  46. ↑ Leonard, Peter. "Kyrgyzstan: Taking power one building at a time". Eurasianet. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  47. ↑ Doolotkeldieva, Asel (24 February 2021). "Populism à la Kyrgyz: Sadyr Japarov, Nationalism, and Anti-Elite Sentiment in Kyrgyzstan". Illiberalism Studies Program Working Papers (4): 7–9. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  48. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan forces exchange gunfire in worst border flareup in years | Eurasianet". eurasianet.org. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  49. ↑ "Kyrgyz, Tajik security forces clash at border in water dispute". Reuters. 29 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  50. ↑ BBC News (1 July 2022). "Uzbekistan Karakalpakstan: At least 18 killed in unrest over right to secede". Reuters. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  51. ↑ "Марат Иманкулов заявил, что боевики в рядах армии Таджикистана хотят захватить весь Баткен". 22 September 2022.
  52. ↑ "К конфликту на кыргызско-таджикской границе может быть причастен Шох Искандаров". 2 May 2021.
  53. ↑ "Среди боевиков генерала Шоха были сторонники террористических организаций".
  54. ↑ "Containing The Armed Conflict In Russia (East Prigorodny)". George Mason University.
  55. ↑ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
  56. ↑ Jaimoukha, Amjad M. (2005). The Chechens: A Handbook. Psychology Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-415-32328-4. Archived from the original on 6 September 2024. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
  57. ↑ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
  58. ↑ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
  59. 1 2 Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
  60. 1 2 Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
    ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
  61. ↑ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
  62. ↑ "Grey Wolves in Syria". Egypt Today. 11 May 2017. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  63. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Russian Federation: Chechens". Minority Rights Group International. May 2018.
  64. ↑ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  65. 1 2 The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, at Google Books
  66. 1 2 Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
  67. 1 2 Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
  68. ↑ Second Chechen War: Causes, Dynamics and Termination – A Civil War between Risk and Opportunity?, 5 November 2004, Social Science Research Network
  69. ↑ "TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  70. ↑ ""The Battalion of Imam Shamil" claimed attack in St.Petersburg, says they are Al-Qaeda, urging to withdraw troops from Syria - Map of News from Russia. From Vladivostok to Kaliningrad - News from Russia - russia.liveuamap.com". Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  71. ↑ "Islamic State spokesman calls on other factions to 'repent,' urges sectarian war". The Long War Journal. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 24 June 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2015. Baghdadi, the "Emir of the Faithful," has "accepted your bayat and has appointed the noble sheikh Abu Muhammad al Qadarī as Wali [or governor] over [the Caucasus]," Adnani says.
  72. ↑ "ISIS Declares Governorate in Russia's North Caucasus Region". Institute for the Study of War. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 4 December 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  73. ↑ "Казахстан подтвердил убийство двух своих граждан в ходе операции ФСБ". Kommersant (in Russian). 9 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  74. ↑ Panossian 2002, p. 145: "Until the dissolution of the USSR, the Soviet authorities sided, in general, with Azerbaijan. ... Soviet troops sent to the conflict area ... on numerous occasions, took the side of the Azerbaijani forces to 'punish' the Armenians for raising the NK issue."
  75. ↑ Shogren, Elizabeth (21 September 1990). "Armenians Wage Hunger Strike in Regional Dispute: Soviet Union: Five threaten to starve themselves to death unless Moscow ends military rule in Azerbaijan enclave". Los Angeles Times. Soviet troops have been in Nagorno-Karabakh for 2+1⁄2 years ... The troops support armed Azerbaijani militias who have imposed a blockade of the region ...
  76. ↑ Cornell 1999, p. 26: "Sporadic clashes became frequent by the first months of 1991, with an ever-increasing organization of paramilitary forces on the Armenian side, whereas Azerbaijan still relied on the support of Moscow. ... In response to this development, a joint Soviet and Azerbaijani military and police operation directed from Moscow was initiated in these areas during the Spring and Summer of 1991.".
  77. ↑ Papazian 2008, p. 25: "units of the 4th army stationed in Azerbaijan and Azeri OMONs were used in 'Operation Ring', to empty a number of Armenian villages in Nagorno-Karabakh in April 1991.".
  78. ↑ "AFGHAN FIGHTERS AIDING AZERBAIJAN IN CIVIL WAR". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022.
  79. ↑ Taarnby 2008, p. 6.
  80. ↑ Brzezinski & Sullivan 1997, p. 616: "It is also revealed that a new force of 200 armed members of the Grey Wolves organization has been dispatched from Turkey in preparation for a new Azeri offensive and to train units of the Azeri army."
  81. ↑ Griffin, Nicholas (2004). Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 185–186. ISBN 0-226-30859-6.
  82. ↑ "Украинские националисты УНАО-УНСО признали, что воевали на стороне Азербайджана в Карабахе". panorama.am (in Russian). 17 September 2010. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017.
  83. ↑ ""В случае войны мы окажем баку посильную помощь"". euraspravda.ru (in Russian). 5 March 2014.
  84. ↑ ""В случае войны мы окажем Баку посильную помощь"". Minval.az (in Russian).
  85. 1 2 Azerbaijan: Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1994. ISBN 1-56432-142-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2020. p. xiii "Slavic mercenaries also take part in the fighting. The Slavs on both sides ..."; p. 106 "Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian mercenaries or rogue units of the Soviet/Russian Army have fought on both sides."
  86. ↑ "Турецкие националисты намерены участвовать в новой карабахской войне" [Turkish nationalists intend to participate in a new Karabakh war]. REGNUM (in Russian). 14 July 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  87. ↑ Demoyan 2006, p. 226: "Turkey continued to provide military as well as economic aid to Azerbaijan. As further proof, the Turkish army and intelligence services launched undercover operations to supply Azerbaijan with arms and military personnel. According to Turkish sources, over 350 high-ranking officers and thousands of volunteers from Turkey participated in the warfare on the Azerbaijani side.".
  88. ↑ "В карабахском селе открылся памятник погибшим в войне кубанским казакам [A monument to the Kuban Cossacks who died in the war was opened in the Karabakh village]" (in Russian). REGNUM News Agency. 30 May 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  89. ↑ According to Leonid Tibilov, President of South Ossetia in 2012-17. "Леонид Тибилов поздравил Бако Саакяна с 25-й годовщиной образования Нагорно-Карабахской Республики [Leonid Tibilov congratulated Bako Sahakyan on the 25th anniversary of the formation of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]". presidentruo.org (in Russian). President of the Republic of South Ossetia. 2 September 2016. Archived from the original on 29 August 2020. В борьбе за свободу и независимость на помощь народу Арцаха пришли и волонтеры из Южной Осетии. Они скрепили нашу дружбу своей праведной кровью, пролитой на вашей благословенной земле. Мы высоко ценим, что вами увековечены их имена в памятниках, названиях улиц и учебных заведений ряда населенных пунктов Вашей республики.
  90. ↑ de Waal, Thomas (2003). Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press. p. 285.
  91. ↑ Winds of Change in Nagorno Karabakh Archived 2011-12-06 at the Wayback Machine. Euronews. 28 November 2009.
  92. ↑ Uppsala Conflict Data Program, Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh – civilians, viewed 2013-05-03
  93. ↑ "Azerbaijani Soldier Shot Dead by Armenian Forces". Naharnet. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
  94. ↑ See
  95. ↑ "Russian threatens Georgia". The Washington Post. 16 June 1992.
  96. ↑ Georgia: Avoiding War in South Ossetia (Report). International Crisis Group. 26 November 2004. ICG Europe Report 159. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  97. 1 2 "Militia Tightens Rule over Ex-Soviet State". Washington Post. 19 January 1992. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  98. ↑ "Gamsakhurdia Loyalists Continue Fight". Los Angeles Times. 20 January 1992. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  99. ↑ Baev, Pavel K. (2003). "Civil wars in Georgia: corruption breeds violence". In Koehler, Jan; Zurcher, Christoph (eds.). Potentials of Disorder: Explaining Conflict and Stability in the Caucasus and in the Former Yugoslavia. Manchester University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780719062414.
  100. ↑ "Rebels take control of Abkhazia". Deseret News. 1 October 1993. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  101. ↑ "Georgians, Separatists Sign Ceasefire, Peace Accord". News & Record. 1 December 1993. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  102. ↑ "Remains Of 23 Georgians Killed In 1992–93 Abkhaz War Identified". Radio Liberty. Georgia (Georgian Republic). 6 December 2023.
  103. ↑ Wendy Sloane (6 October 1994). "Azeri Government Thwarts a Putsch Linked to Oil Deal". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 10 February 2025.
  104. ↑ de Waal 2003, p. 252.
  105. ↑ "Georgia/Abkhazia (1990–present)". University of Central Arkansas.
  106. ↑ Georgian Revolt Quashed. Washington Post. 20 October 1998.
  107. ↑ "Abkhazia "on verge of war"". Archived from the original on 15 February 2008.
  108. ↑ "Caucasus Report (2001)". Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty.
  109. ↑ "Crisis Summary: Pankisi Gorge — 2002". International Crisis Behaviour Project. Duke University. 18 January 2005. Archived from the original on 15 November 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2025.
  110. ↑ "Statement by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev". Russia's President web site. 26 August 2008. Archived from the original on 2 September 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2008.
  111. ↑ Dimitri Sanakoev (14 October 2008). South Ossetia and Russia's War on Georgia (PDF). Liberal. p. 2.
  112. ↑ "Принуждение к конфликту" [Coercion to conflict]. Kommersant (in Russian). 16 October 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  113. ↑ Kramer, Andrew E. (29 January 2021). "Armenia and Azerbaijan: What Sparked War and Will Peace Prevail?". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 March 2021. Armenia has said that Turkey was directly involved in the fighting in and around Nagorno-Karabakh, and that a Turkish F-16 fighter shot down an Armenian jet. Turkey denied those accusations.
  114. ↑ Tsvetkova, Maria; Auyezov, Olzhas (9 November 2020). "Analysis: Russia and Turkey keep powder dry in Nagorno-Karabakh conflict". Reuters. Retrieved 4 March 2021. Turkey's support for Azerbaijan has been vital, and Azerbaijan's superior weaponry and battlefield advances have reduced its incentive to reach a lasting peace deal. Ankara denies its troops are involved in fighting but Aliyev has acknowledged some Turkish F-16 fighter jets remained in Azerbaijan after a military drill this summer, and there are reports of Russian and Turkish drones being used by both sides.
  115. ↑ "Azerbaijan denies Turkey sent it fighters from Syria". 28 September 2020. Archived from the original on 7 October 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  116. ↑ "Nagorno-Karabakh: Azerbaijan accuses Armenia of rocket attack". The Guardian. 5 October 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  117. ↑ "Türkiye'nin Dağlık Karabağ'a paralı asker gönderdiği iddiası" (in Turkish). Deutsche Welle. 29 September 2020. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  118. ↑ Ed Butler (10 December 2020). "The Syrian mercenaries used as 'cannon fodder' in Nagorno-Karabakh". BBC. Retrieved 23 July 2024. Although Azerbaijan and its ally Turkey deny the use of mercenaries, researchers have amassed a considerable amount of photographic evidence, drawn from videos and photographs the fighters have posted online, which tells a different story.
  119. ↑ Cookman, Liz (5 October 2020). "Syrians Make Up Turkey's Proxy Army in Nagorno-Karabakh". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 23 July 2024. According to sources within the Syrian National Army (SNA), the umbrella term for a group of opposition militias backed by Turkey, around 1,500 Syrians have so far been deployed to the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region in the southern Caucasus ... Shortly after conflict erupted between Armenia and Azerbaijan, Turkey sought to mobilize the SNA, sometimes called Turkey's proxy army ... The first fighters were transferred in late September to southern Turkey and then flown from Gaziantep to Ankara, before being transferred to Azerbaijan on Sept. 25.
  120. ↑ Laurence Broers (February 2021). "Analysing the Second Karabakh War". Conciliation Resources.
  121. ↑ "ACAPS Briefing note – Armenia-Azerbaijan: Nagorno-Karabakh: Humanitarian impact of the military offensive (06 October 2023)". Reliefweb. October 2023.
  122. ↑ De La Pedraja, René (2018). The Russian Military Resurgence: Post-Soviet Decline and Rebuilding, 1992–2018. McFarland. pp. 93–94. ISBN 9781476634494. This response was too much for the commander of the 14th Army General Yuri Netkachev, who ordered Russian troops to drive out the Moldovan forces. The 14th Army had always supported the separatists since the very beginning, but this direct support was the first open participation in combat. ... The participation of the 14th Army was indispensable for the victory of the separatists, ... Moldovan forces were concentrated in a forest near Bender, and Lebed decided to stop their advance by relying on his powerful artillery. At 0300 on 3 July massive barrages rained down on the unsuspecting Moldovans ...
  123. ↑ de Waal, Thomas (2018). Uncertain Ground: Engaging with Europe's De Facto States and Breakaway Territories (PDF). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 39. Neither side had a proper military force. The intervention of the Russian Fourteenth Army and its commander General Alexander Lebed on behalf of the Transdniestrians was decisive.
  124. ↑ Kosienkowski, Marcin; Schreiber, William (8 May 2012). Moldova: Arena of International Influences. Lexington. ISBN 9780739173923. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  125. ↑ "Russia's New Foreign Policy" (PDF). American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research. p. 5. Retrieved 10 February 2023. Hence their wholehearted support for Yeltsin in his September–October 1993 confrontation with the Left-nationalist radical supporters of the Supreme Soviet. The Czech President Václav Havel said October 4 that the clashes in Moscow were not simply 'a power struggle, but rather a fight between democracy and totalitarianism.' In a joint statement Presidents Lennart Meri of Estonia, Guntis Ulmanis of Latvia, and Algirdas Brazauskas of Lithuania called the struggle in Moscow 'a contest between a democratically elected President and antidemocratic power structures.' Their Moldovan counterpart, Mircea Snegur, called the Supreme Soviet supporters 'Communist, imperialist forces who want to turn Russia into a concentration camp'. 'In my thoughts I am on the barricades with the defenders of Russian democracy, as I was next to them in August 1991,' Eduard Shevardnadze said in a message to the Kremlin on the late afternoon of October 3, 1993, when the outcome looked quite grim for Yeltsin. 'Deeply concerned about the events in Moscow, I am again expressing my resolute support for President Yeltsin and his allies.'
  126. ↑ "Yeltsin Receives Widespread Backing for Assault". The Washington Post. 4 October 1993. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  127. ↑ "'Russian Revolution of October 1993' seen from office of Moldova's ambassador in Moscow. Op-Ed by Anatol Țăranu, ex-ambassador of Moldova to Russia". IPN press agency. 28 September 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024. Unlike Chisinau, the leaders of the Transnistrian separatists supported almost openly the Rutskoy-Khasbulatov camp, sending paramilitaries from Transnistria to the Russian capital to defend the White House. On October 4, the Moldovan ambassador in Moscow gave an interview for the Russian press, in which he warned about the presence of representatives of paramilitary detachments of the Transnistrian separatists among the defenders of the White House.
  128. ↑ Post, Kyiv (27 January 2014). "EuroMaidan rallies in Ukraine (Jan. 26-27 live updates) - Jan. 27, 2014". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  129. ↑ Під час штурму Банкової постраждали вже 15 правоохоронців [During the storming of Bankova, 15 law enforcement officers were injured]. TVi (in Ukrainian). 1 December 2013. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014.
  130. ↑ Golitsina, Natalya (3 April 2014). "Photos Link Yanukovych's Troops To Maidan Massacre". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  131. ↑ Митинг в поддержку действий президента по защите национальных интересов Украины прошел в Харькове [Rally in support of the president's actions to protect the national interests of Ukraine took place in Kharkiv] (in Russian). Interfax-Ukraine. 30 November 2013. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  132. ↑ Днепропетровских бюджетников заставляют ехать в Киев на 'Антимайдан' [Dnipropetrovsk state employees are forced to go to Kyiv to 'Antimaydan']. comments.ua (in Russian). UA: Comments. 12 December 2013. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  133. ↑ Кожного привезеного на столичний "антимайдан" ошукали на 500 грн [Everyone brought to the capital's "anti-Maidan" was deceived for UAH 500]. Gazeta (in Russian). 14 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  134. ↑ На Євроманда "тітушки" йдуть з металевими трубами ["Aunts" go to Euromand with metal pipes] (in Ukrainian). Kyiv Comments. 29 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  135. ↑ 'Анти-євромайдан' завершився. 'Тітушки' чекають відмашки 'стартувати' на Майдан? ['Anti-Euromaidan' is over. Are 'aunts' waiting for the 'start' on the Maidan?]. Ukrayinska Pravda (in Ukrainian). 29 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
  136. ↑ "Tyagnibok Zaproponuvav rozformuvati Berkut" [Tiagnybok offered to disband 'Berkut']. Ukrainian National News. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015.
  137. ↑ Responsibility for burning private vehicles of protesters was taken by the Red Sector Archived 1 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. TVi. 1 February 2014
  138. ↑ "From Russia, 'Tourists' Stir the Protests". The New York Times. 3 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
  139. ↑ "Meet Moscow's New "Ukrainian Front" | The XX Committee". 20committee.com. 3 February 2014. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  140. ↑ Luhansk administration is being guarded by Don Cossacks Archived 1 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. 24tv. 26 January 2014
  141. ↑ "Друг Путина Хирург вывел байкеров на баррикады | Украинская правда" [Putin's friend Surgeon takes bikers to barricades | Ukrainian Pravda]. Pravda.com.ua. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  142. ↑ Pravda, Ukrainska (2 February 2014). "Evidence shows falsified reports used against AutoMaidan - Feb. 02, 2014". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  143. ↑ "Українські студенти підтримали Євромайдан. У Києві та регіонах – страйки" [Ukrainian students supported Yevromaydan. In Kyiv and regions – Strikes]. NEWSru. UA. 26 November 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2016.
  144. ↑ "Ukraine crisis: Key players". BBC News. 27 January 2014. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  145. ↑ "Kiev's protesters: Ukraine uprising was no neo-Nazi power-grab". The Guardian. 13 March 2014. Archived from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  146. ↑ ""Правий сектор" підтверджує свою участь у подіях на Грушевського". Радіо Свобода (in Ukrainian). 19 January 2014. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  147. ↑ На Евромайдане в Киеве собрались десятки тысяч украинцев [Euromaydan in Kyiv gathered tens of thousands of Ukrainians] (in Russian). Korrespondent.net. 24 November 2013. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  148. ↑ "Mr Akhtem Chiygoz: "Crimean Tatars Leave Actively to Kyiv on Maidan Nezalezhnosti"". 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
  149. ↑ Ivakhnenko, Vladimir (6 December 2013). Майдан готовит Януковичу вече [Square prepare Yanukovych Veche]. Svoboda (in Russian). Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  150. ↑ Об'єднані ліві йдуть з Майдану (tr. "The United Left is leaving the Maidan") Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (18 March 2014)
  151. ↑ "Danyluks group under fire for seizure of government buildings". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  152. ↑ В'ячеслав Березовський: Євромайдани України стали потужним об'єднавчим чинником [Vyacheslav Berezovsky: Euromaydan Ukraine became a powerful unifying factor] (in Ukrainian). UA: Cun. 2 December 2013. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  153. ↑ Hrytsenko, Anya (30 September 2016). "Misanthropic Division: A Neo-Nazi Movement from Ukraine and Russia". Euromaidan Press. Archived from the original on 2 October 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
  154. ↑ Novogrod, James (21 February 2014). "Dozens of Ukrainian Police Defect, Vow to Protect Protesters". NBC News. Archived from the original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
  155. ↑ Nemtsova, Anna (13 December 2013). "Kiev's Military Guardian Angels". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
  156. ↑ "Ukrainian communists not to join other political forces in new parliament, says Symonenko". Interfax-Ukraine. 8 November 2012. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
  157. ↑ "Result of parliamentary votes" (in Ukrainian). Verkhovna Rada. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  158. 1 2 McDermott, Roger N. (2016). "Brothers Disunited: Russia's use of military power in Ukraine". In Black, J.L.; Johns, Michael (eds.). The Return of the Cold War: Ukraine, the West and Russia. London: Routledge. pp. 99–129. doi:10.4324/9781315684567-5. ISBN 978-1-138-92409-3. OCLC 909325250.
  159. ↑ "Ukraine v. Russia (re Crimea) (decision)". European Court of Human Rights. January 2021. The Ukrainian Government maintains that the Russian Federation has from 27 February 2014 exercised effective control over the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol ... There was sufficient evidence that during the relevant period the respondent State [Russia] had exercised effective control over Crimea.
  160. ↑ Sasse, Gwendolyn (2023). Russia's War Against Ukraine. Wiley & Sons. p. 2004. Russia's war against Ukraine began with the annexation of Crimea on 27 February 2014. On that day, Russian special forces without any uniform insignia appeared in Crimea, quickly taking control of strategic, military and political institutions.
  161. ↑ DeBenedictis, Kent (2022). Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 140. During the night of 26–27 February, Russian special forces without insignia departed Sevastopol ... They arrived at the Crimean Rada and Council of Ministers buildings in Simferopol, disarmed the security and took control of the buildings ... Putin later signed a decree designating 27 February as Special Operations Forces Day in Russia.
  162. ↑ "'Няша' Поклонська обіцяє бійцям 'Беркута' покарати учасників Майдану". www.segodnya.ua (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
  163. ↑ "7683rd meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Thursday, 28 April 2016, 3 p.m. New York". Mr. Prystaiko (Ukraine): I have to remind the Council that the official medal that was produced by the Russian Federation for the so-called return of Crimea has the dates on it, starting with 20 February, which is the day before that agreement was brought to the attention of the Security Council by the representative of the Russian Federation. Therefore, the Russian Federation started – not just planned, but started – the annexation of Crimea the day before we reached the first agreement and while President Yanukovych was still in power.
  164. ↑ "Russia's Orwellian 'diplomacy'". unian.info. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
  165. ↑ "Putin reveals secrets of Russia's Crimea takeover plot". BBC News. 9 March 2015.
  166. ↑ "Vladimir Putin describes secret meeting when Russia decided to seize Crimea". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 9 March 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
  167. ↑ "Meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club". Kremlin.ru. 24 October 2014. Archived from the original on 15 April 2015. I will be frank; we used our Armed Forces to block Ukrainian units stationed in Crimea
  168. ↑ "Treasury Designates Seven Individuals And One Entity Contributing To The Situation In Ukraine". US Treasury. 11 April 2014.
  169. ↑ Harding, Luke; Walker, Shaun (17 March 2014). "Crimea applies to be part of Russian Federation after vote to leave Ukraine". The Guardian.
  170. ↑ Simon Shuster (10 March 2014). "Putin's Man in Crimea Is Ukraine's Worst Nightmare". Time. Retrieved 8 March 2015. Before dawn on Feb. 27, at least two dozen heavily armed men stormed the Crimean parliament building and the nearby headquarters of the regional government, bringing with them a cache of assault rifles and rocket propelled grenades. A few hours later, Aksyonov walked into the parliament and, after a brief round of talks with the gunmen, began to gather a quorum of the chamber's lawmakers.
  171. ↑ "Conflict-related civilian casualties in Ukraine" (PDF). OHCHR. 27 January 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  172. ↑ Lister, Tim; Kesa, Julia (24 February 2022). "Ukraine says it was attacked through Russian, Belarus and Crimea borders". Kyiv: CNN. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  173. ↑ Murphy, Palu (24 February 2022). "Troops and military vehicles have entered Ukraine from Belarus". CNN. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  174. ↑ "Why is Belarus admitting Wagner leader and backing Russia against Ukraine?". BBC. 26 June 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2025.
  175. ↑ "Missiles launched into Ukraine from Belarus". BBC News. 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  176. ↑ "On Cam: Russian Missile Shoots Down Ukrainian Mi-8; Helicopter Heading Towards Belgorod Burns". Hindustan Times. 17 March 2024.
  177. ↑ "Ukraine reports first clash with North Korean troops". DW. 2 November 2024. Archived from the original on 7 November 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2024.

Sources

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Soviet authorities generally sided with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. Soviet troops were present in Nagorno-Karabakh for 2+1⁄2 years and supported Azerbaijani militias. Soviet troops directly intervened during Operation Ring in April–May 1991 on the Azerbaijani side.
  2. ↑ Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) until 1991.
  3. ↑ Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Armenia) until 1990 (renamed Republic of Armenia)/1991 (declared independence).
  4. ↑ See Russia's role in the conflict section for more details
  5. ↑ Ceasefire agreement was signed on 1 December 1993, although fighting continued during 1994.
  6. ↑ The International Crisis Behaviour Project at Duke University defines the crisis as having lasted from 27 July 2002, the date of an attack by Chechen separatists on Russian forces at Itum-Kale in Russia, to 7 October 2002, when Russia and Georgia agreed to joint patrols on their mutual border. This period also included Russian airstrikes on Georgian territory, Georgia's most consequential security operation in the Gorge, and the final exit of Ruslan Gelayev. There had been an armed separatist presence in the Gorge since 1999, and Russia's forceful objections begun, at the latest, in November 2002. Russia's first coercive measures against Georgia took place the next month.
  7. ↑ Denied by Azerbaijan and Turkey.
  8. ↑ Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova until 23 May 1991. Constituent republic of the Soviet Union until 27 August 1991.
  9. ↑ Transnistria is a separatist and internationally unrecognized de facto state, regarded as Moldovan territory by all United Nations members.
  10. ↑ War escalated as Russia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022, however the term "war in Donbas" is not generally used for events occurring after the invasion started.
  11. 1 2 The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian puppet states, having declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. Several months into the invasion, Russia declared that it had formally annexed both entities in September 2022. They continue to exist as republics of Russia.
  12. ↑ In 2022, Belarus allowed Russia to use its territory to launch the invasion and to launch missiles into Ukraine. See: Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
  13. ↑ From November 2024
  1. ↑ South Ossetia's status is disputed. It considers itself to be an independent state, but this is recognised by only a few other countries. The Georgian government and most of the world's other states consider South Ossetia de jure a part of Georgia's territory.
  2. ↑ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 4 UN member states (three other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
  3. ↑ Supporters of Alexander Rutskoy, the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies frequently used those flags. The Russian tricolor itself only remained hoisted at the White House building (see video documentary Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).
  4. ↑ There are "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the Russian operation began. The Ukrainian Government maintains, and the European Court of Human Rights agrees, that Russia controlled Crimea from 27 February 2014, when unmarked Russian special forces took control of its political institutions. The Russian Government later made 27 February "Special Operations Forces Day". In 2015, the Ukrainian parliament officially designated 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia", citing the date inscribed on the Russian medal "For the Return of Crimea". In 2018, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding". President Putin stated in a film about the annexation that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014.
  1. ↑ Reports of some protesters attending under duress from superiors
  2. ↑ Titushky are provocators during protests.
  3. ↑ Early November 2012 Communist Party party leader Petro Symonenko stated that his party will not co-operate with other parties in the new parliament elected in the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. Nevertheless, in at the time in parliament its parliamentary faction usually voted similarly to the Party of Regions parliamentary faction.

References

  1. ↑ The Kazakh government claimed that the CSTO's operations were solely for peacekeeping purposes.