List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union

Map of the international boundaries after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991

This article provides a list of conflicts that have occurred in the territory of the former Soviet Union. In 1991, the dissolution of the Soviet Union resulted in the emergence of 15 post-Soviet states: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

List

Central Asia

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Tajikistani Civil War 5 May 199227 June 1997Began when ethnic groups from the Gharm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan, which were underrepresented in the ruling elite, rose up against the national government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, in which people from the Leninabad and Kulob regions dominated. The war ended with the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan and the Moscow Protocol.50,000–100,000 killed
Batken conflict Kyrgyzstan
Russia (material support)
Uzbekistan (military support)		 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan 30 July 1999 27 September 1999 Armed clashes between militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Armed Forces of Kyrgyzstan1,182 killed
Andijan massacre
13 May 2005 Protest and government massacre in the city of Andijan in Uzbekistan187–1,500 killed
2010 Kyrgyz Revolution SDPK
Respublika
Ata-Meken
Ar-Namys
Ata-Zhurt
United Kyrgyzstan		 6 April 2010 15 April 2010 Also known as the People's April Revolution, the Melon Revolution or the April Events. Began with the ousting of Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev in the capital Bishkek. The violence ultimately led to the consolidation of a new parliamentary system in Kyrgyzstan.400+ killed
2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes
19 May 2010June 2010Clashes between ethnic Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in southern Kyrgyzstan, primarily in the cities of Osh and Jalal-Abad, in the aftermath of the ouster of former President Kurmanbek Bakiyev on April 7.393–893 killed
Insurgency in Gorno-Badakhshan (2010–2015) 19 September 20101 September 2015Sporadic fighting in Tajikistan between rebel and government forces.191–206 killed
Zhanaozen massacre Oil workers 16 December 2011 17 December 2011 Labor protest and government massacre in the city of Zhanaozen in Kazakhstan14+ killed
2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes Ethnic Dungans Ethnic Kazakhs 5 February 2020 8 February 2020 Clashes between ethnic Kazakhs and ethnic Dungans (a Muslim group with Chinese origins) in the village of Masanchi within the Korday District of Kazakhstan.11 killed
2020 Kyrgyz Revolution
5 October 2020 15 October 2020 Revolution caused by alleged electoral fraud in the October 2020 Kyrgyz parliamentary election, overnment corruption, government response to the COVID-19 pandemic and arrest and conviction of former president Almazbek Atambayev on corruption charges. 1 killed
2021 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan28 April 20211 May 2021Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan over water dispute.45 killed
2022 Kazakh unrest Government of Kazakhstan
CSTO		 Kazakh opposition
Protesters		2 January 202211 January 2022Protests across Kazakhstan that were sparked by an abrupt increase of gas prices, but have escalated into general protests. Kazakhstan's government has requested CSTO assistance in quelling the protests.257 killed
2022 Karakalpak protests  Karakalpakstan protesters1 July 20223 July 2022Over proposed amendments by President Shavkat Mirziyoyev to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. A day after protests began in the Karakalpak capital of Nukus, Mirziyoyev withdrew the constitutional amendments. The Karakalpak government said that protesters had attempted to storm government buildings.21 killed
2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes Kyrgyzstan
27 January 202220 September 2022Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan146 killed
Afghanistan–Tajikistan border skirmishes
15 May 2022 Present Occasional skirmishes have occurred along the Afghanistan–Tajikistan border between the Taliban-led Afghan Armed Forces and Tajikistani Border Troops. 8–10 killed

Caucasus

North Caucasus

Map of the Caucasus, showing unrecognized breakaway states (Abkhazia and South Ossetia) within Georgia as a result of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. These areas are regarded by the international community as being occupied by Russia.
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
East Prigorodny conflict North Ossetia
Russian Federation		 Ingushetia Ingush rebels30 October 19926 November 1992Inter-ethnic conflict in the Eastern part of the Prigorodny district.600 killed
First Chechen War
11 December 199431 August 1996Russian troops invaded after Chechnya declared independence, but withdrew in 1996 leading to a de facto Chechen independence.46,500 killed
War in Dagestan (1999) 7 August 199914 September 1999The Islamic International Brigade invaded the neighbouring Russian republic of Dagestan in support of the Shura of Dagestan separatist movement.2,775 killed
Second Chechen War
7 August 199916 April 2009Russia restores federal control of Chechnya.20,500 killed
Insurgency in Ingushetia
21 July 200719 May 2015Separatist insurgency in Ingushetia.871 killed
Insurgency in the North Caucasus
16 April 200919 December 2017Separatist insurgency in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other parts of the North Caucasus region.3,500 killed
Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus
20 December 2017PresentOngoing terror activity of the Islamic State branch in the North Caucasus after the insurgency of the Caucasus Emirate.250+ killed

South Caucasus

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Foreign groups:
 20 February 198812 May 1994The secessionist conflict leads to de facto independence of Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic).28,000–38,000 killed
South Ossetia war (1991–1992) Georgia (country) Georgia (1992) 5 January 199124 June 1992The separatist conflict leads to South Ossetia's de facto independence from Georgia.1,000 killed
Georgian Civil War
Georgia (country) Pro-Shevardnadze forces
 22 December 199131 December 1993A civil war leads to the overthrow of the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia and his replacement with new President Eduard Shevardnadze.2,000 killed
War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) Georgia
14 August 1992 30 September 1993 Abkhaz separatism leads to the de facto independence of Abkhazia from Georgia.10,000–30,000 killed
1993 Azerbaijani coup d'état
  • Huseynov militia
  • Supported by:
  • Russia
  • Azerbaijani Government
  • APFP
 4 June 1993 15 June 1993 A mutiny against Azerbaijani President Abulfaz Elchibey replaces him with Heydar Aliyev Unknown
1994 Azerbaijani coup attempt
  • Huseynov militia
  • Supported by:
  • Russia
 3 October 1994 5 October 1994 The government troops thwart a coup led by Prime Minister Surat Huseynov against President Heydar Aliyev after he signed a deal with the Western consortium to explore three oil fields in the Caspian Sea, which angered Russia. Huseynov previously led a coup in 1993 to install Aliyev in power. None
1995 Azerbaijani coup attempt
13 March 1995 17 March 1995 A failed attempt to reinstall former president Abulfaz Elchibey 31 killed
War in Abkhazia (1998) Abkhazia 18 May 199826 May 1998Ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia launched an insurgency against the Abkhazian secessionist government.100 killed
1998 Georgian attempted mutiny
18 October 1998 19 October 1998 An abortive mutiny led by pro-Gamsakhurdia officers from the Senaki Military Brigade to remove new President Eduard Shevardnadze from power. 5 killed
2001 Kodori crisis
4 October 200118 October 2001Georgian guerrillas unsuccessfully try to regain control over Abkhazia with the help of Chechen fighters.At least 40 killed
Pankisi Gorge crisis
November 2000October 2002An incursion by Al-Qaeda forces into Georgia on behalf of Chechen rebels fighting in the North Caucasus. They were forced out in 2004 by Georgian forces with American and Russian backing.Unknown
2004 South Ossetian clashes Georgia (country) Georgia 7 July 20045 November 2004Clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian troops result in several deaths.22 killed
2006 Kodori crisis Georgia (country) Monadire 22 July 200628 July 2006Georgian police and special forces drive a local rebellious militia out of the Georgian-controlled Kodori Valley in Abkhazia.1 killed
Russo-Georgian War Georgia 1 August 200816 August 2008A war between Georgia on one side and Russia, South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other side confirms the de facto independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and leads to their recognition by Russia and Nicaragua.500 killed
2009 Georgian mutiny Mutineers from the Mukhrovani Separate Tank Battalion 5 May 20095 May 2009An alleged abortive mutiny by a Georgian Army tank battalion based in Mukhrovani village with a goal of removing President Saakashvili from power.None killed
2010 Mardakert clashes Azerbaijan 18 June 20101 September 2010Sporadic border war on the Armenian–Azerbaijan border and at the line of contact between the Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan.7–8 killed
2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Azerbaijan 1 April 20165 April 2016Armenian and Azerbaijani forces fight a four-day long conflict along the border of the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh. Azerbaijani forces make minor territorial gains, some of which are retaken by Armenian forces before the end of the conflict.400–1,600 killed
July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes Azerbaijan Armenia 12 July 202016 July 2020Armenian and Azerbaijani forces engage in border clashes along the Tavush Province of Armenia and Tovuz District of Azerbaijan. The death of Azerbaijani major general Polad Hashimov sparks the July 2020 Azerbaijani protests. Turkey and Azerbaijan organize large-scale military exercises following the clashes, and tensions persist until the beginning of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War 2 months later.29–133 killed
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
27 September 202010 November 2020Azerbaijan retakes most of the territories previously controlled by the Republic of Artsakh. Russian peacekeepers introduced into the remaining disputed area.7,000 killed
Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis Azerbaijan Armenia 12 May 2021PresentBorder clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia.353 killed
Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan
12 December 202230 September 2023 Azerbaijan blockades the Republic of Artsakh.Unknown
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan Artsakh 19 September 2023 20 September 2023Azerbaijan launches an attack on the Republic of Artsakh after nine months of blockade. The Artsakh Defence Army disbands, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agrees to dissolve itself entirely by January 1, 2024, and almost the entire population of Artsakh flees to Armenia.200 killed
Islamic State insurgency in Azerbaijan
2 July 2019Present An low-level insurgency in Azerbaijan, mainly the Qusar District. 1-8 killed

Eastern Europe

ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Gagauzia conflict Gagauz Republic
12 November 1989 14 January 1995 Ended in the reintegration of Gagauzia into Moldova as an autonomous region. Unknown
Transnistria War
2 November 1990 21 July 1992 Separatism in Transnistria leads to its de-facto secession from Moldova with Russian backing.1,000 killed
1993 Russian constitutional crisis
Support:
 21 September 19934 October 1993Political stand-off between the Russian president and the Russian parliament that was resolved by using military force.147 killed
Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity
21 November 2013 22 February 2014Euromaidan is the name given to civil unrest that started when the Ukrainian government cancelled an association agreement with the EU in favour of closer ties with Russia. The protests escalated and led to the Revolution of Dignity, which toppled the Ukrainian government.121 killed
Russian invasion of Crimea 27 February 2014  26 March 2014 In February 2014, Russia invaded Crimea. In March, following the takeover of Crimea by pro-Russian separatists and Russian Armed Forces, a referendum (not recognised by the new Ukrainian authorities) was held on the issue of reunification with Russia. This took place in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity. Russia then annexed Crimea on 18 March.3 killed
2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine Donetsk People's RepublicLuhansk People's Republic Pro-Russian separatists
Russia		 Ukraine 23 February 2014 2 May 2014 As a result of the revolution in Kyiv, a pro-Russian unrest in the eastern regions of the country escalated into mass protests and violence between those supporting and opposing the new authorities. In Crimea, the events served as a pretext for a Russian annexation of the region. In Donbas, the situation quickly escalated into a war. Protests in other regions included seizure of government buildings in Kharkiv and deadly clashes in Odesa.Unknown
War in Donbas Donetsk PR
Luhansk PR
Russia

Ukraine

 12 April 2014 24 February 2022 As a result of the unrest, a full-fledged war began in the Ukrainian Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, known collectively as Donbas. The separatist republics were proclaimed and captured a strip of land on the border with Russia. Major combat ended with the signing of the second Minsk agreements in early 2015, with a stalemate lasting until the start of the full-scale invasion by Russia of February 2022.14,000 killed
Russian invasion of Ukraine  Ukraine 24 February 2022 PresentOn 24 February 2022, the War in Donbas escalated when Russian government forces began bombing Ukrainian cities. After the bombings, Russian troops launched an operation on Ukrainian soil and began sending in troops on Ukrainian territory, launching a 'full-scale' invasion. This invasion was supported militarily by the separatist Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic and non-militarily by Belarus. Ukraine received military aid from the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and other countries from the Western world. On 30 September 2022, Russia, amid an ongoing invasion, annexed four oblasts of Ukraine – Luhansk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia and Kherson, which were not fully under Russian control at the time. The annexation is the largest in Europe since World War II, surpassing Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea.See fatalities
2023 Belgorod Oblast incursions  Russia
  •  Ukraine (alleged by Russia)
 22 May 202317 December 2023Pro-Ukrainian armed rebels invasion of RussiaUnknown
Wagner Group rebellion  PMC Wagner 23 June 202324 June 2023Mutiny of Wagner PMC against the Russian government15–31 killed
March 2024 western Russia incursion Russia 12 March 20247 April 2024Pro-Ukrainian Groups And Russian Opposition Groups Invading Western Russia In The Belgorod And Kursk OblastsUnknown (both sides casualties are highly inflated)
Kursk offensive (2024–2025) Ukraine 6 August 202416 March 2025Ukrainian occupation of Kursk OblastAround 20,000-30,000 Killed and Wounded

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Soviet authorities generally sided with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. Soviet troops were present in Nagorno-Karabakh for 2+1⁄2 years and supported Azerbaijani militias. Soviet troops directly intervened during Operation Ring in April–May 1991 on the Azerbaijani side.
  2. ↑ Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) until 1991.
  3. ↑ Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Armenia) until 1990 (renamed Republic of Armenia)/1991 (declared independence).
  4. ↑ See Russia's role in the conflict section for more details
  5. ↑ Ceasefire agreement was signed on 1 December 1993, although fighting continued during 1994.
  6. ↑ The International Crisis Behaviour Project at Duke University defines the crisis as having lasted from 27 July 2002, the date of an attack by Chechen separatists on Russian forces at Itum-Kale in Russia, to 7 October 2002, when Russia and Georgia agreed to joint patrols on their mutual border. This period also included Russian airstrikes on Georgian territory, Georgia's most consequential security operation in the Gorge, and the final exit of Ruslan Gelayev. There had been an armed separatist presence in the Gorge since 1999, and Russia's forceful objections begun, at the latest, in November 2002. Russia's first coercive measures against Georgia took place the next month.
  7. ↑ Denied by Azerbaijan and Turkey.
  8. ↑ Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova until 23 May 1991. Constituent republic of the Soviet Union until 27 August 1991.
  9. ↑ Transnistria is a separatist and internationally unrecognized de facto state, regarded as Moldovan territory by all United Nations members.
  10. ↑ War escalated as Russia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022, however the term "war in Donbas" is not generally used for events occurring after the invasion started.
  11. 1 2 The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian puppet states, having declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. Several months into the invasion, Russia declared that it had formally annexed both entities in September 2022. They continue to exist as republics of Russia.
  12. ↑ In 2022, Belarus allowed Russia to use its territory to launch the invasion and to launch missiles into Ukraine. See: Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
  13. ↑ From November 2024
  1. ↑ South Ossetia's status is disputed. It considers itself to be an independent state, but this is recognised by only a few other countries. The Georgian government and most of the world's other states consider South Ossetia de jure a part of Georgia's territory.
  2. ↑ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 4 UN member states (three other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
  3. ↑ Supporters of Alexander Rutskoy, the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies frequently used those flags. The Russian tricolor itself only remained hoisted at the White House building (see video documentary Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine).
  4. ↑ There are "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the Russian operation began. The Ukrainian Government maintains, and the European Court of Human Rights agrees, that Russia controlled Crimea from 27 February 2014, when unmarked Russian special forces took control of its political institutions. The Russian Government later made 27 February "Special Operations Forces Day". In 2015, the Ukrainian parliament officially designated 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia", citing the date inscribed on the Russian medal "For the Return of Crimea". In 2018, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding". President Putin stated in a film about the annexation that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014.
  1. ↑ Reports of some protesters attending under duress from superiors
  2. ↑ Titushky are provocators during protests.
  3. ↑ Early November 2012 Communist Party party leader Petro Symonenko stated that his party will not co-operate with other parties in the new parliament elected in the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. Nevertheless, in at the time in parliament its parliamentary faction usually voted similarly to the Party of Regions parliamentary faction.

References

  1. ↑ The Kazakh government claimed that the CSTO's operations were solely for peacekeeping purposes.
  1. ↑ "Tajikistan: President Meets With Popular Front Commanders". Radio Liberty Archives. 9 July 1997. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  2. ↑ "Американцы боятся белорусских танков. Белоруссия американских санкций не боится" [Americans are afraid of Belarusian tanks. Belarus is not afraid of American sanctions]. Lenta.ru (in Russian). 1 March 2002. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021.
  3. ↑ Jonson, Lena (25 August 2006). Tajikistan in the New Central Asia. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781845112936. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  4. ↑ Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror, by Rohan Gunaratna, pg. 169
  5. ↑ "Iran dismisses Tajik civil war claims as attempt to damage ties". Reuters. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
  6. ↑ "A Thaw Between Tajikistan and Iran, But Challenges Remain". Jamestown. Retrieved 10 July 2019. Fearing a continuity of Soviet-era policies, Iran supported the Islamic and nationalist opposition during the civil war.
  7. ↑ Abdulfattoh, Shafiev (February 2016). "Iran and Tajikistan: A Story of Love and Hate" (PDF). Central Asia Policy Brief. 34. At the end of 1992, Tajikistan entered into a bloody civil war. Tehran gave refuge and support to the leaders of the Democratic-Islamic coalition of the Tajik opposition, and was therefore considered to be a pro-Islamic actor. However, it also contributed a critical role in helping peace discussions: Tehran hosted several rounds of the Tajik peace negotiations in 1994, 1995, and 1997, bringing both sides to the discussion table. President Rahmon paid an official visit to Tehran in 1995 and opened an embassy there. But seen from Dushanbe, Moscow was a more reliable ally than Tehran, and any kind of pan-Persian nationalism was rapidly shut down by the authorities.
  8. ↑ Ahmad, Majidyar. "Tajikistan Accuses Iran of Sponsoring Terrorism, Restricts Iranian Organizations' Activities". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 9 August 2017. Tajikistan has accused Iran of having played a subversive role in the country's civil war in the 1990s by sending terrorists to the Central Asian republic, the latest sign of deteriorating relations between the two countries.
  9. ↑ Tajikistan Civil War Global Security
  10. ↑ Epkenhans, Tim (2016). The Origins of the Civil War in Tajikistan: Nationalism, Islamism, and Violent Conflict in Post-Soviet Space. ISBN 978-1-4985-3278-5. "killed approximately 40,000-100,000 people and displaced more than one million."
  11. ↑ "UNMOT". Archived from the original on 16 April 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2026.
  12. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan Marks the 15th Anniversary of the April Revolution". Ferghana Information Agency (Moscow). 7 April 2025. Archived from the original on 8 April 2025. Retrieved 22 August 2025.
  13. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: Justice Elusive 10 Years On | Human Rights Watch". 9 June 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2026.
  14. ↑ "Kyrgyz Authorities Raid Uzbek Village in South". Voice of America. 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  15. ↑ Schwirtz, Michael (11 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan Fighting Poses Challenge to Government". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  16. ↑ Loiko, Sergei L. (15 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan riots: Kyrgyzstan will get aid, no troops from regional security group". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  17. ↑ "Turkey says backs Kyrgyzstan's territorial integrity | Diplomacy". World Bulletin. 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  18. ↑ Dougherty, Jill (16 June 2010). "U.S. mulls more help for Kyrgyzstan, rules out unilateral action". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  19. ↑ "The Associated Press: Mobs burn villages, slaughter Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan". Retrieved 15 June 2010.[dead link]
  20. ↑ "Mass Exodus as Death Toll Rises in Kyrgyzstan's Restive South - News from Antiwar.com". News.antiwar.com. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  21. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: Ferghana.Ru sources confirm the involvement of Tajik contractors in the Osh massacre". Ferghana Information Agency (Moscow). 15 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  22. ↑ "Kyrgyz police arrest riot suspects : Voice of Russia". 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  23. 1 2 "A Thomson Reuters Foundation Service". AlertNet. Archived from the original on 27 June 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
  24. ↑ Orange, Richard (17 June 2010). "Kyrgyzstan troubles to spur rise of al Qaeda in Central Asia". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  25. ↑ Schwirtz, Michael (14 June 2010). "Russia Weighs Pleas to Step in as Uzbeks Flee Kyrgyzstan". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  26. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: State of emergency imposed after ethnic violence kills two, wounds dozens | Spero News". Speroforum.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  27. ↑ "Leading News Resource of Pakistan". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  28. ↑ "ReliefWeb t Document t Provisional Government Grappling with Simmering Ethnic Tension in Kyrgyzstan". Reliefweb.int. 25 May 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  29. 1 2 "Uzbek troops leave Kyrgyzstan". United Press International. 3 June 2010. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  30. ↑ Najibullah, Farangis. "Uzbek, Kyrgyz, And Tajik Lives Collide in Sokh – Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 2010". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  31. ↑ "eng.24.kg". eng.24.kg. Archived from the original on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  32. ↑ "What's behind the pullout of the Uzbek forces from Sokh?". EurasiaNet.org. 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 June 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
  33. ↑ ВААЛЬ, ТАМАРА (27 March 2020). "25 человек задержали по подозрению в массовых беспорядках в Кордайском районе – Аналитический интернет-журнал Vласть". vlast.kz (in Russian). Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  34. ↑ "Число погибших из-за массовых беспорядков на юге Казахстана выросло до 11 человек". Interfax (in Russian). 13 February 2020.
  35. ↑ Leonard, Peter. "Kyrgyzstan: Taking power one building at a time". Eurasianet. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  36. ↑ Doolotkeldieva, Asel (24 February 2021). "Populism à la Kyrgyz: Sadyr Japarov, Nationalism, and Anti-Elite Sentiment in Kyrgyzstan". Illiberalism Studies Program Working Papers (4): 7–9. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  37. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan forces exchange gunfire in worst border flareup in years | Eurasianet". eurasianet.org. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  38. ↑ "Kyrgyz, Tajik security forces clash at border in water dispute". Reuters. 29 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  39. ↑ BBC News (1 July 2022). "Uzbekistan Karakalpakstan: At least 18 killed in unrest over right to secede". Reuters. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
  40. ↑ "Марат Иманкулов заявил, что боевики в рядах армии Таджикистана хотят захватить весь Баткен". 22 September 2022.
  41. ↑ "К конфликту на кыргызско-таджикской границе может быть причастен Шох Искандаров". 2 May 2021.
  42. ↑ "Среди боевиков генерала Шоха были сторонники террористических организаций".
  43. ↑ "Containing The Armed Conflict In Russia (East Prigorodny)". George Mason University.
  44. ↑ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
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  46. ↑ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
  47. ↑ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
  48. 1 2 Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
  49. 1 2 Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
    ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
  50. ↑ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
  51. ↑ "Grey Wolves in Syria". Egypt Today. 11 May 2017. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  52. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Russian Federation: Chechens". Minority Rights Group International. May 2018.
  53. ↑ "Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  54. 1 2 The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, at Google Books
  55. 1 2 Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
  56. 1 2 Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
  57. ↑ Second Chechen War: Causes, Dynamics and Termination – A Civil War between Risk and Opportunity?, 5 November 2004, Social Science Research Network
  58. ↑ "TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  59. ↑ ""The Battalion of Imam Shamil" claimed attack in St.Petersburg, says they are Al-Qaeda, urging to withdraw troops from Syria - Map of News from Russia. From Vladivostok to Kaliningrad - News from Russia - russia.liveuamap.com". Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
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