Imperial and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China developed a complicated peerage system for imperial and noble ranks.

Rule of inheritance

In principle, titles were downgraded one grade for each generation of inheritance.

Occasionally, a peer could be granted the privilege of shixi wangti (世襲罔替; shìxí wǎngtì; "perpetual heritability"), which allowed the title to be passed down without downgrading. Throughout the Qing dynasty, there were 12 imperial princely families that had this privilege. They were known as the "iron-cap princes".

The noble titles were inherited through a system of loose primogeniture: the eldest son from the peer's first wife was usually the heir apparent, but inheritance by a younger son, a son of a concubine, or a brother of the peer was not uncommon. According to his birth (by the chief consort, a secondary consort, or a concubine) and his father's rank, a non-heir son of an imperial prince was also entitled to petition for a lower title than the one he would have received had he been the heir. Non-heir sons of other peers were also occasionally granted lower titles.

Whether imperial or not, the inheritance or bestowal was never automatic, and had to be approved by the Emperor, the Ministry of Personnel, or the Imperial Clan Court. Imperial princes, upon reaching adulthood at the age of 20, had to pass tests in horse-riding, archery and the Manchu language before they were eligible for titles. Imperial princesses, other than the Emperor's daughters, were usually granted titles upon marriage, regardless of age. Princesses' titles were also usually fixed after they were granted, and were not affected by changes in their fathers' noble ranks.

Grading system

Yunjiwei ("sub-commander of the cloud cavalry") was originally a military rank created in the Sui dynasty, but it was later turned into a military honour in the Tang dynasty as part of the xun guan (勳官; xūn guān) system. The Qing dynasty abolished the separate military honour system and merged it into the nobility rank system, using yunjiwei as the lowest grantable rank of nobility, and the basic unit of rank progression.

For example, a yunjiwei who received another grant of yunjiwei became a jiduwei. A first-class duke plus yunjiwei was the equivalent of 23 grants of yunjiwei.

Official rank (pin)

The Qing dynasty, much like previous dynasties, used an "official rank" system (品; pǐn). This system had nine numbered ranks, each subdivided into upper and lower levels, in addition to the lowest "unranked" rank: from upper first pin (正一品), to lower ninth pin (從九品), to the unranked (未入流), for a total of 19 ranks. All government personnel, from the highest chancellors to the lowest clerk, held an official rank ex officio, which determined their salary, uniform, privileges and order of precedence.

This pin system existed in parallel to the noble ranks detailed in this article. Many higher noble titles ranked above this system (超品; chāopǐn). And while some titles corresponded to a pin, they were considered equivalents of convenience rather than actual official ranks.

Titular names

Historically, Chinese noble titles were usually created with a shiyi (食邑; shíyì; fief) each, although the fief could be only nominal. The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty enfeoffed cadet branch princes and other nobles in different regions of China. The Qing dynasty ended this tradition; with only a few exceptions, no fief was ever named. No Qing prince was enfeoffed with territory. Instead, noble titles were created without a name, or were bestowed a meihao (美號; meǐhào; titular name). These names were usually descriptive of the peer's merit, virtue, or the circumstances leading to his ennoblement. The Dukes Yansheng kept their traditional fief in Shandong under Qing rule.

Titular names were unique for imperial princes, while non-imperial peers' titular names may overlap. Following Ming dynasty tradition, single-character names were reserved for qinwangs, while junwangs used two-character names. All other peers normally had two-character names, but could receive up to four characters.

Since noble titles were primarily awarded for military service, the titular names predominantly described martial virtues, e.g., zhongyong gong (忠勇公; zhōngyǒng gōng; "loyal and brave duke"). However, a particularly common titular name was cheng'en gong (承恩公; chéng'ēn gōng; "duke who receives grace"), which was frequently granted to the Empress's family members.

Imperial clan

Eight Privileges

At the top of the imperial hierarchy, the highest six ranks enjoyed the "Eight Privileges" (八分; bafen; jakūn ubu). These privileges were:

  1. Promotional books inscribed on jade, set of seals for correspondence, red carriage wheels, purple horse reins, right for reported entry, red walls of the residence, use of corner lanterns, use of leopard tail guns.
  2. Precious stones on the mandarin hat crests, clothes with encircled dragon patterns, use of imperial porcelain tea sets, purple reins, red wheels, doornails on the gate, employment of guards.
  3. Finials on mandarin hats embellished with precious stones, use of two-eyed peacock feather, surcoats with encircled dragon patterns, purple reins, right to enter the imperial palace by horse, leopard tail guns, separate manor in the capital, employment of officials and eunuchs.

Peacock feathers, however, were prohibited for princes above the rank of beizi and direct imperial clansmen. The "Eight Privileges" entitled the prince to participate in state councils and share the spoils of war. However, the prince was also bound to reside in the capital and render service to the imperial court. In 1816, the princes were forbidden from reporting matters via eunuchs. Thus, most of the princes employed officials as managers of domestic affairs. The range of tasks of those officials included conveyance of memorials on behalf of the prince. The supervisor of princely manor held lower fourth rank in the nine pin system.

Male members

The four ranks above were granted solely to direct male-line descendants of the Emperor. These titles below were granted to cadet lines of the imperial clan.

The above six ranks are titles that enjoy the "Eight Privileges". The titles below do not enjoy the "Eight Privileges" and have no imperial duties.

All of the above titles are chaopin (超品; chāopǐn), outranking official ranks. The ranks below are ranked first to fourth pin respectively. The first three jiangjun ranks are each further subdivided into four classes: first class plus yunjiwei, first class, second class, and third class.

Regardless of title and rank, an imperial prince was addressed as "A-ge" (ᠠᡤᡝ; age; 阿哥; À-gē), which means "lord" or "commander" in Manchu.

Comparison of imperial titles for male members

Title Title equivalent Title of vassal state Class Subclass
Emperor Above ranks None
Crown Prince
Khan
Prince of the First Rank
Prince of the Second Rank Shizi
Prince of the Third Rank Zhangzi
Prince of the Fourth Rank Prince Consort of the First Rank
Duke of the First Rank Prince Consort of the Second Rank
Duke of the Second Rank
Duke of the Third Rank Jasagh Taiji/Tabunang
Duke of the Fourth Rank
General of the First Rank Taiji/Tabunang 1 1–3
General of the Second Rank 2 1–3
General of the Third Rank 3 1–3
General of the Fourth Rank 4 1–3

Female members

The following titles were granted to female members of the imperial clan:

Comparison of imperial titles for female members

Title Father Rank
Mother being primary consort Mother being secondary consort
Princess of the First Rank Emperor Above the ranks
Princess of the Second Rank Emperor
Princess of the Third Rank Crown Prince/Prince of the First Rank
Princess of the Fourth Rank Prince of the Second Rank/Shizi
Lady of the First Rank Prince of the Third Rank/Zhangzi Prince of the First Rank
Lady of the Second Rank Prince of the Fourth Rank Prince of the Second Rank
Lady of the Third Rank Duke with the eight privileges Prince of the Third Rank
Clanswoman Duke without the eight privileges Prince of the Fourth Rank 5
General Duke with the eight privileges 6
Duke without the eight privileges 7
General 8

Princes consort

Efu (ᡝᡶᡠ 额驸; 額駙; éfù), also known Fuma (驸马; 駙馬; fùmǎ), translated as "Prince Consort". Its original meaning was "emperor's charioteer". It was usually granted to the spouse of an imperial woman above the rank of zongnü. The efus were separated into seven ranks corresponding to the rank of the princesses the efu married. Efus who married gulun gongzhus and heshuo gongzhus held ranks equivalent to the beizis and dukes respectively. The remaining efus had equivalent official rank from the first to fifth pin.

An efu retained his title and privileges as long as the princess remained his primary consort – even after her death. However, if an efu remarried or promoted another consort to be his primary consort, he would lose all rights obtained from his marriage to the princess.

Princesses consort

The following titles were granted to consorts of imperial princes:

If a primary consort was divorced or died, the next primary consort held the title of "step consort" (继福晋, jì fújìn).

Dead princesses consort of the emperor could be posthumously honoured as empress, ex. Lady Niohuru, first wife of Minning, was honoured as Empress Xiaomucheng, and Lady Sakda, first wife of Yizhu, was honoured as Empress Xiaodexian.

All princesses consort regardless of rank were listed in the imperial genealogy (jade tables).

Comparison of imperial titles for consorts

Imperial consort Imperial princess consort Imperial clanswomen rank Imperial Princess
Empress Above the ranks
Imperial Noble Consort Crown Princess Princess Imperial
Noble Consort Primary Consort of the First Rank Princess of the First Rank
Consort Primary Consort of a Shizi Princess of the Second Rank
Primary Consort of the Second Rank Princess of the Third Rank
Concubine Primary Consort of the Third Rank Princess of the Fourth Rank
Noble Lady Primary Consort of the Fourth Rank Lady of the First Rank
First Class Attendant Duchess with the eight privileges Lady of the Second Rank
Second Class Attendant Duchess without the eight privileges Lady of the Third Rank
Wife of imperial general 1 to 6 Clanswoman

Others

At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, before the rank system was formalised, non-standard titles were also used, such as:

Non-imperial nobility

Standard non-imperial titles

The following are the nine ranks of the peerage awarded for valour, achievement, distinction, other imperial favour, and to imperial consort clans.

The above three ranks are chaopin (超品; chāopǐn), outranking official ranks. The four following ranks were all evolved from leadership ranks in the Manchu banner army, originally called ᡝᠵᡝᠨ ejen (額真; "lord" or "master" in Manchu) and later ᠵᠠᠩᡤᡳᠨ janggin (章京; "general" in Manchu).

All of the above ranks are sub-divided into four classes; in order: first class plus yunqiwei, first class, second class, and third class.

Pre-standard non-imperial titles

At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, during Nurhaci's and Huangtaiji's reigns, the noble ranks were not yet standardised. Several titles were created that did not fit into the above system, mostly for defectors from the Ming dynasty. These titles were similar to the titles used in the Ming dynasty, and lack the Manchu nomenclature and the noble rank system introduced later.

Additionally, there were banner offices that later evolved into hereditary noble titles. Despite being used as noble titles, these offices continued to exist and function in the banner hierarchy. To distinguish the noble titles from the offices, they were sometimes called "hereditary office" (世职; 世職; shì zhí) or "hereditary rank" (世爵; shì jué).

Comparison of non-imperial nobility titles

Nobility title Class Rank Military official rank equivalent
Duke (民公) 1 Above ranks
2
3
Marquis (侯) 1
2
3
Count (伯) 1
2
3
Viscount (子) 1 1 General (駐防將軍)
2 Colonel (都統)
3 Minister of War (兵部尚書)
Baron (男) 1 2 Vice-colonel (副都统)
2 Commander of the garrison(總兵)
3 Fujiang (副将)
Qingche duwei (輕車都尉) 1 3 Staff-captain (參領)
2 Hunting grounds supervisor in Rehe (熱河圍場总管)
3 Minister of Imperial Stables (上匹院卿)
Jiduwei (骑都尉; 騎都尉; jídūwèi) 1 4 Assistant captain (左领)
2 Leader of imperial bodyguards (侍卫班领)
Yunjiwei (云骑尉; 雲騎尉; yúnjíwèi) 1 5 Fifth rank controller of Amur river transport (黑龙江水手管)
Enjiwei (恩骑尉; 恩騎尉; ēnjíwèi) 1 6 Supervisor of imperial tombs (陵园管)

Notable titles

Non-imperial nobility titles for women

Mingfu (命妇; mìngfù; "noblewoman") was granted to wives of officials, non-imperial aristocrats and collateral clanswomen. Also, mothers of imperial consorts were granted a title of "mingfu" according to the rank held by her daughter as well as sisters of imperial consorts and fujins. Noblewomen were divided into 7 ranks according to the rank of her husband and her daughter, if her daughter was an imperial consort. If the title held by mingfus' husbands was divided into subclasses, they could be treated equally. Mingfus holding rank equivalent to wives of imperial generals conducted court ceremonies, ex. promotions of imperial consort, weddings of princes and princesses (if they married into Manchu or Han family) and rites, while lower rank ladies attended to them.

Mingfu, whose husband was granted a title above the rank system (Duke, Marquis or Count), was treated similarly to imperial duchess, but enjoyed fewer privileges than imperial clanswoman. Collateral Gioro ladies were treated as mingfu from 1st to 3rd rank. Noblewomen were addressed as "furen" ("Madam") regardless of rank.

However，

Differently to imperial clanswomen, mingfus wore crowns with three bejeweled plaques and finial consisting of one coral, silk bandeaus with embroidered golden dragons chasing after a flaming pearl and blue-grounded chaofu on solemn ceremonies. Lower-ranking ladies could not wear surcoats with roundels of flowers and auspicious symbols unlike imperial duchesses and clanswomen. Collateral clanswomen could wear surcoats with rampant four-clawed dragons above the magnificent sea-waves pattern (lishui) and white caishui (pointed kerchief fastened to the robe like a pendant). Wives of officials wore sleeveless vest matching Mandarin square of her husband and Ming Dynasty style tiaras, as depicted on ancestral portraits.

Comparison of titles of noblewomen
Rank Title Title of imperial consort

being a daughter of noblewoman

 Imperial title equivalent
1 Viscountess Empress/Empress Dowager Wife of zhenguo jiangjun
2 Baroness Imperial Noble Consort Wife of fuguo jiangjun
3 Wife of qingche duwei Noble Consort Wife of fengguo jiangjun
4 Wife of jiduwei Consort Wife of feng'en jiangjun
5 Wife of yunjiwei Imperial Concubine Clanswoman
6 Wife of enjiwei Noble Lady
7 Wife of 7th rank official First Attendant / Second Attendant

Civil and honorary titles

With a few exceptions, the above titles were, in principle, created for only military merits. There were also titles for civil officials.

While there were a few Manchu civil titles, the most important civil titles followed the Han Chinese Confucian tradition, derived from high bureaucratic offices or imperial household offices that evolved into honorary sinecures. These were sometimes granted as special privileges, but also often as a practical means of conferring official rank promotion without giving specific responsibilities. Examples of such titles were taibao (太保; "Grand Protector"), shaoshi (少師; "Junior Preceptor"), taizi taifu (太子太傅; "Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince"), furen (夫人, "Madam"/“Lady") and dafu (大夫; "Gentleman"). These titles were non-heritable.

In addition, there were also honorary and hereditary titles granted to religious and cultural leaders, such as:

Ranks of protectorates and tributary states

The Qing imperial court also granted titles to princes of its protectorates and tributary states, mainly in Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet. The vassal titles were generally inherited in perpetuity without downgrading.

The ranks roughly mirrored those of the imperial clan, with a few differences:

The taiji and tabunang are equal in rank, and both subdivided into five classes: jasagh, first class, second class, third class, and fourth class. Jasagh is chaopin, above official ranks, while the rest were equivalent to the first to fourth pin.

Under the tusi system, the Qing Empire also recognised various local tribal chieftainships of ethnic minority tribes. This was mainly applied in the mountain regions of Yunnan, but also in western and northern borderlands. They were the Chiefdom of Bathang, Chiefdom of Chuchen, Chiefdom of Lijiang, Chiefdom of Lithang, Chiefdom of Mangshi, Chiefdom of Tsanlha, Chiefdom of Yao'an, Chiefdom of Yongning, Mu'ege Chiefdom of Muli and Chiefdom of Langqu.

The Qing Empire had two vassals in Xinjiang, the Kumul Khanate and the Turfan Khanate.

Modernized awards/orders system

The modernized awards system, promulgated in 1882, was as follows in the following order (from highest to lowest):

In 1909, a scheme of nobility insignia were proposed, used only with 1905/1911 military uniforms. These insignia consist of a center in Or, top in Sable, red bottom in Gules, dexter in Argent and sinister in Azul or Vert.

RankEdgeFloralCenter GemSurrounding GemsNumber
King of BloodGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl10 (3+2+3+2)
King of CommandaryGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl8 (2+2+2+2)
PrinceGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl7 (3+1+2+1)
Prince of BannerGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl6 (2+1+2+1)
Prince Consort of the EmpireGoldPaeonia suffruticosaRubyPearl6 (2+1+2+1)
Defender DukeGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl5 (2+1+1+1)
Bulwark DukeGoldFirmiana simplexRubyPearl4 (1+1+1+1)
Lesser Defender DukeGoldFirmiana simplexRed CoralPearl5 (2+1+1+1)
Lesser Bulwark DukeGoldFirmiana simplexRed CoralPearl4 (1+1+1+1)
Prince Consort of the StatesGoldPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralPearl4 (1+1+1+1)
Defender GeneralGoldFirmiana simplexRed CoralPearl1 (top)
Bulwark GeneralGoldFirmiana simplexRed CoralRuby1 (top)
Supporter GeneralGoldFirmiana simplexSapphireRed Coral1 (top)
General by GraceGoldFirmiana simplexLapis lazuliSapphire1 (top)
DukeSilverPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralPearl4 (1+1+1+1)
MarquessSilverPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralPearl3 (1+1+0+1)
CountSilverPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralPearl2 (1+0+1+0)
ViscountSilverPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralPearl1 (top)
BaronSilverPaeonia suffruticosaRed CoralRuby1 (top)

Vassal nobilities replace Gold edging and F. simplex with silver edging and P. suffruticosa from the insinia of the matching rank of royals.

Other honours and privileges

In addition to systematized rank titles listed above, there were also other honorific titles and privileges, mostly non-heritable:

Robes from the Qing emperors are also preserved there. The Jurchens in the Jin dynasty and Mongols in the Yuan dynasty continued to patronize and support the Confucian Duke Yansheng.

Etymology of Manchu titles

With only a few exceptions, most Manchu titles ultimately derived from Han Chinese roots.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Lee, Lily; Wiles, Sue, eds. (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women. Vol. II. Routledge. p. 609. ISBN 978-1-317-51562-3. An emperor's [...] sister or a favorite daughter was called a grand princess (zhang gongzhu); and his aunt or grand-aunt was called a princess supreme (dazhang gongzhu).
  2. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. jingkini hafan: (子爵) viscount
  3. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. ashan i hafan: (男) baron
  4. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. adaha hafan (輕車都尉), a hereditary title of sixth grade.
  5. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. baitalabure hafan (騎都尉), a hereditary title of seventh grade.
  6. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 380. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. tuwašara hafan (雲騎尉), a hereditary title of eighth grade.
  7. ↑ Norman, Jerry (2013). A Comprehensive Manchu-English Dictionary. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 380. ISBN 978-0-674-07213-8. kesingge hafan (恩騎尉), a hereditary title of ninth grade.
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