Chenoua people

Antiquity

The region where the Chenoua people live today has been inhabited for over 10,000 years. Across Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the early modern period, the Chenoua people were not distinct from the loosely connected Berber tribes of the wider Maghreb.

In the 8th century BC, the Phoenicians established colonies along the southern Mediterranean to the Strait of Gibraltar. Tipaza, thought to be a cultural city of the Chenoua people, was one of the cities founded by the Punics as a trade post around the 6th century BC. The city became a major maritime post as the Punics heavily engaged and mixed with the local Berber population, whom they called the Libyans.

In the 3rd century BC, the area was under the control of the Masaesyli. King Syphax of the Masaesyli famously allied with Carthage in the Second Punic War, which led to his defeat. After the fall of Carthage, the region fully came under Numidian rule. The reign of Mauretanian King Juba II flourished and rebuilt coastal cities, including Tipaza and Caesarea, the new capital.The region surrounding Mount Chenoua was later annexed by the Romans, who called the Berbers the Mauri.

Those living in Roman colonies were given Roman citizenship as the cities continued to prosper. In contrast, while the coastal cities were becoming heavily Romanized and Christianized, rural Mauri populations in the mountains retained their language and culture without much assimilation. This trend would continue throughout history. Others became part of the Roman military, mainly as cavalrymen. In 372, Firmus led a rebellion against several coastal cities, sacking them. Berber populations retained their rural communities and cultures while the Vandals controlled the region.

Middle Ages

After the collapse of Roman North Africa, the Mauro-Roman Kingdom controlled the modern Chenoua heartland. By 533, Byzantine forces had conquered the Vandal Kingdom and various different Berber kingdoms had been scattered across the Maghreb. While the same ancient cities of Caesarea and Tipaza were under Byzantine control, the Berber kingdoms kept sovereignty over inland and mountainous terrain. Various conflicts would break out between the Berbers and the Byzantines. The coastal cities would remain under Byzantine control up until the Arab invasions.

In the 8th century, following the Arab conquest of Egypt, the Umayyad Caliphate began their invasion of the Maghreb. By 711, they had conquered its entirety. Under Arab rule, the Berbers rapidly converted to Islam. Since the Umayyads were focused on the flatlands, mountainous and rural Berber communities were able to keep their culture, language, and clans. Some Berbers stayed Christians. Yet, due to heavy taxations and discriminatory behavior from the Arabs, the Berbers heavily opposed the Umayyads. This led to the Great Berber Revolt, in which the ancestors of the Chenoua took part of, which ended Umayyad rule in the region.

In the 11th century, following the Zirid Dynasty's proclamation of splitting from the Fatimid Caliphate, the Fatimids retaliated by encouraging Bedouin Arab tribes, such as the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, to migrate into the Zirid and defeat them. Unlike previous Arab migrations, which somewhat allowed the Berber identity to thrive in rural areas, the migrations of the Bedouin Arabs largely arabized the Berber populations, including the modern Chenoua. The Zirid Dynasty was destroyed and the nearby Hammadid Dynasty and Zenata Berbers were weakened. This is a major factor of the modern Arabization of the Chenoua people.

The Zenata Berbers, the ancestors of the Chenoua, were able to govern themselves with tribal councils in the mountains.

Ottoman Empire

In 1516, the Barbarossa brothers captured Algiers from the Spanish and proclaimed themselves as the sultans of Algeria. After Aruj's death, his brother Hayreddin brought the territory to the Ottoman Empire in 1520, who founded the city as the Regency of Algiers. Unlike other urbanized centers or agricultural plains directly controlled by the Ottomans, rural Berber communities continued to have a sort of preserved culture, even with arabization. This successfully preserved the Shenwa language spoken by Chenoua people and their Sunni Muslim beliefs today. Meanwhile, Turkish soldiers settled the coastal cities of the region's lowlands, mixing with the Berber population and producing Kourouglis.

The Regency of Algiers depended on the Makhzen to levy taxes in rural areas. The Chenoua and other Berbers of the mountains resisted these taxes, resulting in several skirmishes. Whenever the Ottoman beys asserted authority, the Chenoua would retreat back to their forts in the mountains. Yet, even with divisions, the Ottomans and Chenoua were unified in their battle against the Europeans. The Chenoua people would loosely ally with the Ottomans whenever the Christians invaded the region's coasts. Some Chenoua, alongside other Berbers, even participated in piracy. In the 1740s, English traveler Thomas Shaw visited the Regency of Algiers, describing Mount Chenoua and the people.

French Algeria and Algerian War

Following the French invasion of Algiers in 1830, French forces moved westward toward Tipaza, Cherchell, and the rest of the region. The Chenoua population experienced a sharp decline during French occupation, as it is estimated that their population was reduced down to a quarter. The region faced multiple insurrections in the early 1840s, notably with the campaigns of the Hadjout tribes, who reached the east of Algiers in the beginning of 1830.

The Chenoua Beni Menacer tribe, which extended from the east of Mostaganem to the west of Chlef to the south of Miliana, was one of the first Berber tribes to resist French colonization. The tribe had been superior in the mountainous landscape of the region and took advantage of Emir Abdelkader's fall to remain dominant. In response, French Marshal Thomas Robert Bugeaud led a military campaign into the region, and after two months of a siege, finally took control. Local tribes continued to resist, but with much less impact. By 1845, Bugeaud's forces began to use scorched-earth tactics in the Chenoua region.

Across the Dahra Mountain Range region, French forces conducted the pacification campaigns. From 1841 1842, Bugeaud's scorched-earth tactics triggered to the Sabih fires, which burnt down several forests in the region. Around 1,500 died from these fires. The French army additionally used asphyxiation tactics to end local tribal resistance. Marshal Bugeaud was a primary user of asphyxiation tactics, ordering the mass suffocation of Chenoua in caves with smoke and fire, killing around 1,500 people. Chenoua revolutionary Malek El Berkani worked with the Kabyle to lead the 1870s Mokrani Revolt. European settlers seized land in the region's fertile valleys, which relocated many of the Chenoua to more urban areas.

During the Algerian War, the region of the Chenoua became an important stronghold for the National Liberation Army (FLN). The region's caves, ravines, and rough territory provided cover for the frequent ambushes against French forces. In response, the French fortified foothills and deployed blockades along coastal roads. named the "mother of martyrs," Zoulikha Oudai became the head of the FLN in the Cherchell sector. After being executed by French forces by being thrown from a helicopter, her legacy led to the author Assia Djebar composing the film The Nouba of the Women of Mount Chenoua.

Modern Algeria

After immense arabization by the FLN, the Shenwa language was heavily marginalized and became limited to the elderly. Younger generations began to use Algerian Arabic in everyday conversation, marginalizing the language further. The 1980 Berber Spring protests, though not centered on the Chenoua, inspired the region's population. People began to document the language and its dialects, Tamazight was recognized as a national language, and Chenoua inclusion became possible after having gained official status in 2016.

Language

The Chenoua traditionally speak the Shenwa language (Berber: Haqbaylit or Haqbayləkt), a Northern Berber language. It is a part of the wider Afro-Asiatic language family and is a variation of Zenati Berber. The Shenwa language is concentrated along the Dahra Mountain Range, across Tipaza Province, parts of Chlef Province, and Ain Delfa Province. The Chenoua population largely speaks Arabic, although there are still speakers of the Shenwa language. There have been various movements to further revive the language and culture.

The Shenwa language has about 76,000 speakers, around 70.37% of 108,000, the least amount of the estimated Chenoua population.

Religion

The Chenoua people are dominantly Sunni Muslim of the Maliki school, mixing with Algeria's 99% Muslim population. Cities such as Tipaza and Cherchell serve as hubs for Muslim worship for rural Chenoua populations. During the holy month of Ramadan, they are not allowed to eat during the day. The Mufti, usually men, are interpreters of the Quran. Holy men, called Muezzins, are thought to be endowed by God with special abilities.

The day of Ashura is a day to commemorate the dead. During Eid al-Fitr, there is usually a large feast.

Folklore

Mount Chenoua is the cultural "anchor" of the Chenoua people. Along the coast, "When Chenoua puts on its hat, it will soon rain on Cherchell" was a common saying whenever the mountain was covered in clouds. Many locals report that the mountain resembles the silhouette of a sleeping woman.

According to a legend which dates back to antiquity, a beautiful Berber princess of the Beni Menacer tribe was set to be engaged to a Kabyle prince; however, she had really loved a fisherman from the coast. So, on the day of her marriage, she ran to the mountains with her lover. The enraged king yelled a curse out: "May the earth swallow you whole and may you remain there for eternity!" Soon after, an earthquake turned the princess into a reclining mountain with her face facing the sky. Her true lover became a stone statue of a lion with the purpose of protecting her. Whenever the princess cried from the memories of her love, the tears became the rain that fell onto the region.

The Evil Eye is also a prominent part of Chanoua culture. Pottery, weaving blankets, rainfall, and prepared soil are thought to be protective wards.

Nomad architecture and agriculture

The Chenoua are historically mountain-dwelling people. Many of them were nomadic and didn't lay claim to plots of land, although they marked tribal borders. They often slept on makeshift beds while more stationary Chenoua slept in bigger homes or huts. A stationary settlement would include one or multiple huts alongside extra buildings supporting livestock. Thorny shrubs, pine trees, or zebboudj would shelter the area. Nearly every settlement would either neighbor a spring or include a water well. A hazekka is a small home made with stone entirely held together with earth mortar or clay. The house only has a door, a small window, and a makeshift bed called an afithal. In front of every home would be a koucht (an oven) and a deep hole to gather rain water. A small bag of dirt taken from a marabout's grave would hang above the entrance for good luck.

Agriculture

In tradition, the Chenoua are forbidden to interact with a hen's eggs without the presence of foreigners or their families. Men are unable to sell chickens at any market; only women and children are allowed to. The men are allowed to eat the eggs, but only with their family. Figs, pomegranates, carobs, nuts, and acorns can be planted in the first furrow. They are also seen as symbols of fertility and good harvest. Substances like salt, henna, rain, and eggs are seen as vessels of bakara with protective traits against harmful spirits.

Abderrahman ben Chama is seen as one of the most respected saints to the Chenoua. Originating from Meknes, he arrived in the region around the year 800 and had great influence. Once Chama died, violent conflicts broke out between the different tribes. Once they settled down, two koubbas were constructed: one in the countryside and one in Cherchell. Whenever a local wadi fills with water, it marks the beginning of the fig harvest season. Overnight, farmers place figs at each of Chama's koubbas. On the first day following the beginning of the fig season, a khammes (sharecropper) plows the field. Before doing so, the khammes and his landowner eat a loaf of bread with honey and butter together. That following evening, a large feast is held between the settlers. Roasted chicken and couscous are usually the main dishes. On the way back to their hazekka, they would rub the horns of an ox with oil.

Social organization

The Chenoua moved around mainly to acquire food and resources for themselves or their groups. The women of a settlement would build containers covered with linen, called ikhoubal, that would contain wheat, barley, fig, chickpea, and other crops. A 10-centimetre opening is located on the top of an ikhoubal to pour the insides. Chenoua elect their own tribal leaders, although they live in a multiparty republic. Chenoua traditions and tribes are largely based on loyalty. Certain groups, called Sofs, are political parties that govern the tribe and villages inside of that tribe. The leaders of Sofs are based on wealth and social status. Within tribes, trade consists of crops and ceramics. More urban areas export oil and gas.

Traditionally, the husband, his wife, and their children would continue to live with the husband's parents and grandparents. Divorced or widowed children would live in the household, too. Divorce is widely uncommon, with only 4% of families being divorced according to reports. Most families have an average family size of eight people, and Chenoua women are believed to have magical powers. For most of their younger lives, women are considered minors by their parents. The mean height for men is 5'8, while for women it's 5'4. Men and women are only allowed to marry outside of the family. They cannot marry anybody related to them, either by prior marriage, blood, or acquisition. If a mother were to die, her children would go to the mother's parents. Men and women are not usually seen speaking with one another in public unless they are related by blood or marriage. Homosexuality is widely seen as illegal and taboo by older generations. Gay marriage has historically been unthinkable.

Clothing, jewelry, and veils are usually constructed by women. The Chenoua traditionally wear turbans, tunics, and veils all made of wool. They are all normally colored indigo and black. Jewelry is made of leather, metal, and several kinds of gems. Horse saddles are decorated with trik. Normally, the Chenoua wear veils and scarfs while outside.

Every Chenoua tribe had their own unique identity. Most conflicts within the region were between different Chenoua tribes. Around 4.7% of Chenoua males die due to warfare, many of them above the age of 17. Historically, tensions and conflicts with Al-Qaeda have driven the Chenoua out of their native lands. The Chenoua have close relations and ties with the neighboring Kabyle, Mozabites, Chaoui, and Tuareg Berbers.

Tools and weapons

The Chenoua people have created several kinds of tools and weapons:

• The takoba, a one-meter long sword;
• The allagh, a two-meter long lance;
• A tagheda, a small and shart assegai;
• The taganze, a leather-covered wooden bow;
• An amur, a wooden arrow that goes with the taganze;
• A sheru, a long sharp dagger;
• A tellak, a short dagger kept in a sheath attached to a forearm;
• A taburek; a wooden spear

Literature

One of the most prominent examples of Chenoua literature comes from the movie The Nouba of the Women of Mount Chenoua, directed by Assia Djebar. The movie features Lila, a Chenoua who returns to her native region. The film shows the inhabitants of Chenoua Mountain, their culture, and the role of Chenoua women in society. The Chenoua people have a large variety of traditional dances and music:

• Tisiway is traditional Chenoua poetry passed down by generation to generation;
• Tasikisikit is a genre of songs preformed by Chenoua women during ceremonies;
• The men sing tahengemmit, a slower and calmer variation of tasikisikit;
• Children sing bellulla while playing the fandangama, a small monochord instrument;
• The tagest is a common dance that is preformed while sitting;
• Ewegh is a dance done by couples during ceremonies.

Gastronomy

As many Chenoua women work from home, they usually are the ones preparing meals during ceremonies. Chenoua cuisine varies throughout the region, however a common main dish throughout the region is semolina wheat steamed and served with proteins and vegetables. Dishes made along the coast are usually centered around seafood, while highlander dishes include more meats and protein. Traditional meats are lamb and chicken served with gravy. Bourek, mincemeat, fried onions, and eggs are also popular items to be served. While it is mainly consumed within the Chaoui Berber population in eastern Algeria, chakhchoukha is also a main dish in Chenoua culture. Typical Chenoua dishes include: