Fangguo

Fangguo
Fang (方) in oracle bone script
Traditional Chinese	方國
Simplified Chinese	方国
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin fāngguó Middle Chinese Middle Chinese pjang kwok Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) /*[C.q]ʷˤək paŋ/ Zhengzhang /*kʷɯːɡ paŋ/

Fangguo, or Fang states, were a category of ancient Chinese states that existed from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou dynasty.

Name

The term Fang is derived from the Pinyin spelling of the character 方 as spoken in Modern Standard Chinese. In Old Chinese, it is reconstructed by William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart as /*paŋ/.

Fang literally translates to "place" in Modern Standard Chinese, but in Classical Chinese, its meaning was broader, with usages such as a continuous aspect marker. Eastern Wu scholar Yu Fan identified the Guifang as an example of a nation using the term fang as a suffix in their commentary on the I Ching.

In oracle bone inscriptions using oracle bone script dating to the Late Shang period, fang is commonly used as a suffix for placenames (e.g. Tufang 土方). Therefore, these states are often called Fangguo in Chinese academia. The term was first coined by Sun Yirang (孫詒讓) in his text Examples of Bronze Inscriptions (契文舉例) during the Qing dynasty.

Despite the usage, fang is not always used as a placename suffix, and thus the exact meaning of fang when referring to these states is debated. For example, You is not always referred to as a fangguo. Reviews of inscriptions using the term show that allies, neutral parties, and enemies of the Shang people could receive the term. Due to the relative ambiguity in what fang precisely meant, fangguo as used in academia generally only includes states that oracle bone scribes referred to as fang. However, in a broader sense, it can refer to any one state that existed during the time in which oracle bones were actively written. Attempts have been made to define fangguo as the Shang saw them, which requires context clues from the oracular records the Shang left behind. From these clues, scholars such as Wu Shuhui and David Keightley believe the term may be used as a broad reference to polities outside of the Shang people's influence, or more specifically, those outside of the Great Shang City (大邑商), known today as Yin.

Overview

Due to a vanishing lack of written records from individual fangguo, details of how they operated, functioned, and lived, is largely made apparent by oracle bones that detail dealings between the Late Shang or Western Zhou royal courts and the fangguo in question. Given these states may have been illiterate, it is difficult to find autonyms for them, or their own perspectives. For example, the Tufang is only known as the Tufang from Shang sources; there are seemingly no written sources or artifacts made by people from the Tufang, and thus no way of connecting a potential autonym for their state. Likewise, it is difficult to find potential locations for them outside of vague descriptions given by oracle bones found in places like Yin, the Shang capital, within which the Shang people can say whether they were north, south, east, or west of the settlement. Wartime movements can improve accuracy, where they will often describe where they are being attacked from or going to different states to mount assaults. These issues nevertheless make it difficult to identify a physical culture, potential language, or perspectives for any individual fangguo, though bronzeware and their distribution shows they were heavily influenced by Shang culture at some point.

Fangguo appear to have been distinct to modern conceptions of a tribal confederation, city-state, or nation-state. They contained settlements known as yi (邑) to the Shang. Their development appears to have been unequal, without a clear set of socioeconomic principles. They appear to have been primarily agrarian societies. The Shang would earn alliances through the king marrying women from these polities, military power, and cultural influence through the state religion. Leaders or otherwise notable people in fangguo could receive feudal titles such as hou (侯) and bo (伯), commonly translated as Marquis and Earl, respectively. For example, the classical figure Marquess Hu of Chong is identified as a Marquess through the structure State + hou + Name. These figures would commonly arrive and participate in religious ceremonies with Shang nobility. Military alliances could also form, with Shang rulers ordering fangguo to attack their enemies, The Predynastic Zhou are identified as a fangguo by the Shang, which held military alliances with the ruling Shang for a considerable length of time, defending them from the rear whilst warring in the east. These military alliances were reciprocal, and the Shang did accompany fangguo in their own wars, such as in the case of Di Xin accompanying You to attack the Renfang, a move that would ultimately lead to a surprise loss during the Battle of Muye at the hands of a rebelling Predynastic Zhou, resulting in the end of the Shang dynasty proper.

Fangguo are sporadically mentioned in the Chinese classics, such as Bamboo Annals, including in relation to the semi-legendary Xia dynasty. For example, during the reign of He Dan Jia, the Earl of Da Peng and the Earl of Wei (韋) invaded a place called Banfang (班方):

五年, 侁人入于班方.彭伯、韋伯伐班方, 侁人來賓.
In the fifth year, the Shen people entered Banfang. Peng Bo and Wei Bo attacked Banfang, and the Shen people came as guests.

In excavated texts, chiefly found within the past century, fangguo are mentioned far more prominently; these can be found on bronzeware and animal bones. They are found having a variety of relations with the Shang: For example, the Zhifang (沚方) assisted Wu Ding in his campaign against the attacking Tufang. On the flip side, the Tufang are seeing raiding farms and kidnapping Shang people.

Identifying a Fangguo

While inscriptions detailing fangguo are often formulaic, the syntax of Old Chinese is ambiguous, and the word fang has multiple uses, be it as a function word or as a general reference for a place. Therefore, confirming whether a fangguo is being discussed requires further context for confirmation.

Tang Yingjie gives the following criteria:

1. It is called X方 in oracle bone inscriptions.
2. Someone holds the title wang 王 "king," hou 侯 "marquess" or bo 伯 "earl or count" in oracle bones or bronze inscriptions. The character listed before any of these, if applicable, may refer to a fangguo.
3. A small number of cases called 子 may count, referring to a prince in this case.
4. It fought a large-scale war with the Shang royal house (e.g. Verbs for invasion, such as wang 往 or fa 伐, are used.
5. Archaeological materials prove it was a Fang polity.
6. Transmitted texts mention it, and that record is corroborated by oracle bones, bronze inscriptions, or archaeology.

The "nine bang" (九邦) mentioned in the Shanghai Museum bamboo-slip text Rong Cheng Shi 《容成氏》 are also commonly included.

Decline of Fangguo

Fangguo seemingly declined during the Late Shang period, specifically around the time of the Erligang culture, which is thought to have been a result of eastern military expansion against tribes of from the Dongyi region in modern-day Shandong. Wu Shuhui argues that this eastward expansion was to gain further access to copper. Post-conquest, cultural assimilation appears to have taken place, which was inherited by the Zhou dynasty after overthrew Di Xin at the Battle of Muye. States such as the Qifang and You were active well into the Zhou dynasty, with the Qifang having bronzes dating to the reign of King Xuan of Zhou.

There is little mention of fangguo post-Zhou dynasty, with the concept of fangguo seemingly being forgotten and fossilized in toponyms like the Guifang. The Qin dynasty, which united China for the first time, marked a period of intense centralisation, which almost assuredly eliminated any remaining fangguo.

References