Car language

Car
Pū, Pu
Pronunciation[puː]
Native toIndia
RegionNicobar Islands
Native speakers
37,000 (2005)
Latin script
Language codes
ISO 639-3caq
Glottologcarn1240
ELPCar Nicobarese
Pū is classified as Critically Endangered according to the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
Approximate location where Car is spoken
Approximate location where Car is spoken
Location within Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Approximate location where Car is spoken
Approximate location where Car is spoken
Location within Bay of Bengal
Coordinates: 9°11′N 92°46′E / 9.19°N 92.77°E / 9.19; 92.77

Car (Pū) is the most widely spoken Nicobarese language of the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

Although a member of the Austroasiatic language family, it is typologically much more akin to nearby Austronesian languages such as Nias and Acehnese, with which it forms a linguistic area. Car is a VOS language and somewhat agglutinative. There is a quite complicated verbal suffix system with some infixes, as well as distinct genitive and "interrogative" cases for nouns and pronouns.

Phonology

Consonants

Labial Alveolar/
Retroflex		 Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive p t c k ʔ
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Fricative f v s h
Tap ɾ ɽ
Approximant l j

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i ɨ u
Close-mid e ɤ o
Open-mid ɛ ə ɔ
Open (æ) a

Morphosyntax

Shared morphological alternations: the old AA causative has two allomorphs, prefix ha- with monosyllabic stems, infix -um- in disyllabic stems (note: *p > h onset in unstressed σ).

Car is a precategorial language. Any content word can serve for either referential, predicative, or attributive functions. Lexical items are used predicatively in predicational and equative sentences without being accompanied by a copular or existential verb; neither does Car possess.

taŋɛ́ʔ=ʔən

bone=3SG.VIS.NHUM

ŋih

this.SG.NHUM

taŋɛ́ʔ=ʔən ŋih

bone=3SG.VIS.NHUM this.SG.NHUM

'This is a bone'

The differential argument marking system in Car only works with lexical items. Pronominals and proper nominals are not marked.

fɤ́ŋ-kə-ɾɛ

burn-INTR-REFL

cin

I

fɤ́ŋ-kə-ɾɛ cin

burn-INTR-REFL I

'I burn myself (accidentally).'

In intransitive clauses, the lexical S argument (always requires a demonstrative) is cross-referenced.

húʔ-a=jin

cry-STAT=3PL.VIS.HUM

mɛ

that.PL

ɲiʔ

child

húʔ-a=jin mɛ ɲiʔ

cry-STAT=3PL.VIS.HUM that.PL child

'The children are crying.'

In transitive clause, the lexical P argument is indexed in the predicate, while the A argument is not.

ha-cát-ŋɛ́n=ʔək

CAUS-lost-away=3SG.NONVIS.PST

lípəɾɛ

book

cin

1SG

ha-cát-ŋɛ́n=ʔək lípəɾɛ cin

CAUS-lost-away=3SG.NONVIS.PST book 1SG

'I lost the book.'

Thus, Car is an ergative language with an unusual marked absolutive pattern, paralleling some nearby Austronesian languages such as Nias and Enggano, hinting at a possible point of contact-driven influence from Austronesian. However, other than the differential marking system, the similarities between them are unclear.

Vocabulary

Paul Sidwell (2017) published in ICAAL 2017 conference on Nicobarese languages.

WordCarproto-Nicobarese
hottaɲ*taɲ
fourfɛːn*foan
childkuːn*kuːn
lip(minuh)*manuːɲ
dogʔam*ʔam
nighthatəːm*hatəːm
malekoːɲ*koːɲ
earnaŋ*naŋ
oneheŋ*hiaŋ
belly(ʔac)*ʔac
sun(tavuːj)-
sweet(pacaːka)-
overflowtareːci*roac
nosemɛh*moah
breasttɛh*toah
to coughʔɛhɛ*ʔoah
armkɛl*koal
in, insideʔɛl*ʔoal
elbowsikɔŋ*keaŋ

References

  1. ↑ Car at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ↑ Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (Report) (3rd ed.). UNESCO. 2010. p. 31.
  3. ↑ Cysouw, Michael; Quantitative explorations of the world-wide distribution of rare characteristics, or: the exceptionality of north-western European languages Archived 2009-05-14 at the Wayback Machine; pp. 11-12
  4. ↑ WALS: Nicobarese
  5. ↑ Whitehead, Rev. G.; Dictionary of the Car (Nicobarese) language; published 1925 by American Baptist Mission Press; pp. xxvi-xxxii
  6. ↑ Sidwell, Paul (2015). Car Nicobarese. The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages: Leiden: Brill. pp. 1231–1240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  7. ↑ Sidwell, Paul (2017). Car (Nicobarese) sketch.
  8. ↑ Sidwell (2017:6)
  9. ↑ Sidwell (2017:3)
  10. ↑ Weber, Tobias (2025). Towards a diachronic typology of Nicobarese languages: uncommon features in the Austroasiatic context and how they can be explained. 13th International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics (ICAAL 13), October 29-31, 2025.
  11. ↑ Sidwell, Paul. 2017. "Proto-Nicobarese Phonology, Morphology, Syntax: work in progress". International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics 7, Kiel, Sept 29-Oct 1, 2017.