Jetavanaramaya

Jetavanaramaya
ජේතවනාරාමය
Jetavanaramaya
Former namesDenanaka and Denavehera
General information
TypeDagoba
Architectural style
Sinhalese architecture
LocationAnuradhapura, North Central Province, Sri Lanka
Height
HeightOriginal height: 122 m (400 ft), Current height: 71 m (233 ft)
Dimensions
Other dimensions233,000 m2 (2,508,000 ft2)
Technical details
Floor area5.6 hectares

The Jetavanarama stupa or Jetavanaramaya (Sinhala: ජේතවනාරාමය, romanized: jētavanārāmaya) is a stupa, or Buddhist reliquary monument, located in the ruins of Jetavana monastery in the UNESCO world heritage city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. At 122 metres (400 ft), it was the world's tallest stupa, and the third tallest structure in the world (only behind the two great pyramids: Great Pyramid of Giza and Pyramid of Khafre) when it was built by King Mahasena of Anuradhapura (273–301). He initiated the construction of the stupa: 49  following the destruction of the Mahaviharaya of Anuradhapura. His son Kithsirimevan completed the construction of the stupa, and it was renovated by Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa. According to later 13th century literary works, a part of Buddha's girdle is believed to be the relic that is enshrined here.

The structure is significant in the island's history as it represents the tensions within the Theravada and Mahayana sects of Buddhism; it is also significant in recorded history as one of the tallest structures in the ancient world; and the tallest non-pyramidal building; the height of the stupa was 122 metres (400 ft), making it the tallest stupa in the ancient world. With the destruction and abandonment of Anuradhapura kingdom in the 11th century, the stupa with others was covered by jungle. King Parakramabahu in the 12th century tried to renovate this stupa and it was rebuilt to the current height, a reduction from the original height. Today it stands at around 70 meters (varies from 71 to 70.7 meters).

The site covers approximately 5.6 hectares and is estimated to have housed 10,000 Buddhist monks. One side of the stupa is 176 m (576 ft) long, and the flights of stairs at each of the four sides of it are 9 m (28 ft) wide. The doorpost to the shrine, which is situated in the courtyard, is 8 m (27 ft) high. The stupa has a 8.5 m (28 ft) deep foundation, and sits on bedrock.

The structure is no longer the tallest, but it is still the largest, with a base-area of 233,000 m2 (2,508,000 ft2). Approximately 93.3 million baked bricks were used in its construction; the engineering ingenuity behind the construction of the structure is a significant development in the history of the island.

Conception and history

Following King Jettha Tissa's death, his brother Mahasena was consecrated as king by Mahayana monk Sanghamitra; under the monk's influence King Mahasena brought about a campaign against Theravadins: 163  dwelling in the Mahavihara. The differences between the Mahavihara and Abhayagiri fraternities escalated to an extent to which a penalty was established for any person providing alms to monks dwelling in the Mahavihara. The Mahavamsa quotes Sanghamitra: "The dwellers in the Mahavihara do not teach the (true) Vinaya, we are those who teach the (true) Vinaya, O king".

The Mahavihara was eventually abandoned. The monks dwelling at the premises moved to Malaya country and the Principality of Ruhuna, this was followed by the pillaging of Mahavihara by Sanghamitra and minister Sona, and all valuables were transferred to Abhayagiri vihāra.

The pillaging led to a rebellion by minister Meghavannabhaya, he raised an army from Malaya and set camp by the Duratissaka tank. King Mahasena marched an army to meet minister Meghavannabhaya and negotiations occurred the night before the battle. The king apologized for the pillaging and agreed to build a vihara on the grounds of Mahavihara. The Mahavamsa quotes the king: "We will make the vihara to be dwelt in yet again; forgive me my fault." Sanghamitra was assassinated by a labourer on the instructions of a wife of the king.: 109–110  Sangamitra's demise and the construction of parivena by minister Meghavannabhaya marked the return of monks to the site of Mahavihara.

Thus the construction of Jetavanaramaya began and was offered to the monk Tissa, but later the monk was accused of a grave offense upon investigation and proof by a minister, monk Tissa was eventually disrobed and expelled from the order. The Dakkhinagiri monks were then entrusted with the premises of Jetavana.

Late history

Carvings at Jetavanaramaya

The Jetavanaramaya was under the monks of the Sagalika sect. The Sagalika sect was closely linked with the Abhyagiri Viharaya. Towards the end of the Anuradhapura period, Jetavana monastery had developed into one of the three fraternities in the island along with Mahavihara and Abhyagiriya. The fraternities were united during the reign of King Parakramabahu I, who carried out reforms that abolished the Jetavana and Abhyagiriya fraternities and derobed the monks belonging to them as well as some Mahavihara adherents.

Name and location

The importance of the Jetavanaramaya's location is that Mahinda, who brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka, took up residence here to preach Dharma. Thus the forest was named Joitavana and was later called Jetavana.

Design and construction

Carving of a seven-headed Nāga at the Jetavanaramaya
Jetavanarama Stupa

As one of the largest ancient stupas constructed[citation needed] and one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the structural ingenuity and engineering skills employed for the construction are significant. The structure is not hollow, rather it is a solid form. The foundations of the structure were 8.5m deep and the size of the structure required bricks which could withstand loads of up to 166 kg. The solid foundation lay on bedrock and the dome was constructed of full and half bricks and earth fill, the unique shape of a perfect ellipsoid allowed for stress and thus allowed the construction of the large structure. The Mahavamsa describes the foundation laying, where fissures were filled with stones and stamped down by elephants whose feet were protected with leather bindings. The bricks used for the construction were a significant development of ancient Sri Lankan engineering, the bricks used for Jetavanaramaya had a composition of 60 percent fine sand and 35 percent clay, the bricks could withstand 44 kg/cm2 (281 kg/in2).

Finely crushed dolomite, limestone, sieved sand and clay provided the bonding material for the bricks. The clay employed was pliable and thus accommodates movement within the structure. Compositional analysis of bricks showed a far greater percentage of sand in ancient bricks from the Jetavana stupa compared to modern ones, perhaps contributing to their strength. One of the sides of the brick was roughened to trap the bonding slurry thus limiting lateral movement. The stupa was then covered with lime plaster; the plaster used contained seashells, sugar syrup, egg whites, coconut water, glues, oils, plant resin, sand, clay and pebbles. Scientific analysis revealed that calcium lime from seashells was the primary binder for the aggregate of sand. The addition of organic plant materials and varying ratios of binders suggest that ancient builders customized materials for specific purposes. The plaster also provided waterproofing for the structure. As a result, despite the harsh climate, the stupa's lime plaster is well preserved. The Mahavamsa also mentions the use of copper sheets over the foundation and arsenic dissolved in sesame oil to prevent insect and plant intrusions inside the stupa.

It is estimated that Jetavanaramaya took 15 years to complete and would have required a skillful workforce of hundreds, including brickyard workers and bricklayers, and stonemasons.

Conservation

Carvings at Jetavanaramya

Until 1909, the colossal structure was covered with shrub jungle. Monk Kumbuke Dhammarama of Sailabimbaramaya temple of Gammanpita received approval to clear the stupa. The approval was, however, cancelled as the monk decided to settle down. Polonnaruwa Sobita sought and received permission to continue clearing the premises but approval was once again cancelled when the monk initiated the collection of contributions. However, the monk refused to leave.

A British restoration attempt at the Miriseveti stupa in 1979 which laid new bricks made with modern materials, caused extra stress on the ancient brickwork and ultimately broke the dome into multiple segments. For the later 1981 Jetavanaramaya project by the Central Cultural Fund, a conservationist approach, with minimal intervention was implemented. The treatment consisted of of cleaning vegetation, the addition of special made bricks similar to their ancient counterparts, and minimal reinforcement measures.

Conservation in the late 1990s was funded by the income from ticket sales, mainly to foreign tourists to the three cultural triangle sites of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Sigiriya.The surface of the dome was cleaned and reinforced with bricks. Bricks were burned using the same kind of mixture that was used by the builders of the original dagoba. There has however been a decline of the city due to the significant war that existed in the late 1990s. A brick shortage has slowed down the restoration efforts.

As of 2003, a majority of the dome has been restored, as well as partial work on the outer walls and entrance gateways. Progress on the rest of of the stupa since then remains unclear.

Excavations

Carvings and details at the Jetavanaramaya

Excavations have revealed artifacts indicating that Sri Lanka was the primary entrepot for trade activity connecting the Indian rim countries as well as the Mediterranean and the Far East, and artistic influences that point to a shared culture in South Asia. Glass fragments found at Jetavanaramaya in particular point to trade, as glass was exclusively imported in early Medieval Sri Lanka. Mesopotamian Torpedo jars, Late Roman bronze coins, and Tang period Chinese pottery shards excavated at the neighboring city of Anuradhpaura similarly suggest rich trade activity in the region.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Great Cities of the Ancient World. p. 338. ISBN 0385091877.
  2. ↑ Ancient Buddhist Mural Painting of India and Sri Lanka. 2002. p. 204.
  3. ↑ Bandaranayake, Senake (1974). Sinhalese monastic architecture: the viháras of Anurádhapura. Studies in South Asian culture. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03992-6. The Jetavana stupa at Anuradhpaura on the other hand, stands on a terrace which is 590 ft. square, and its original height to the top of its pinnacle is measured over 400 ft.
  4. ↑ "Tallest stupa". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
  5. ↑ Mandawala, P.B. (2002). "The Jetavana Stupa Rediscovered". Silhouette-(2002-2003). General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University: 125–133.
  6. 1 2 Proceedings of the tenth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering & Construction. Asian Institute of Technology. 2006.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ↑ Sinhalese Monastic Architecture. ISBN 9004039929.
  8. 1 2 "Jetavanaramaya". Archived from the original on 2008-01-26.
  9. ↑ Unesco Publishing; Madhyama Saṃskr̥tika Aramudala (Sri Lanka), eds. (2004). The cultural triangle of Sri Lanka. [Paris] : Colombo: Unesco Pub. ; CCF. ISBN 978-92-3-102874-8.
  10. ↑ Silva, R. 1990, "Bricks – A unit of construction in ancient Sri Lanka", ICTAD Journal, 2 (1): pp. 21–42
  11. 1 2 3 "Jetavana, back to the people". Sunday Times. 7 June 2009. Retrieved 2014-11-05.
  12. ↑ Nissanka, H. S. S. (1994). Maha Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: The Oldest Historical Tree in the World. Vikas Publishing House. p. 10. ISBN 0706970632.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Dunkeld, Malcolm, ed. (2006), Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Construction History: Queens College, Cambridge University, 29th March - 2nd April 2006. Vol. 4: Index, Construction History Society, S.l.: Construction History Society, ISBN 978-0-7017-0205-2 {{citation}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  14. ↑ Ranaweera, Munidasa P (December 2004). "Ancient Stupas in Sri Lanka – Largest Brick Structures in the World". CHS Newsletter (70). Construction History Society.
  15. ↑ Calderon, Justin (2026-02-04). "The massive megastructure built for eternity and still standing 1,700 years later". CNN. Archived from the original on 2026-02-04. Retrieved 2026-02-05.
  16. ↑ Prebish, C. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective.
  17. ↑ Jayasuriya, E. A Guide to The Cultural Triangle in Sri Lanka. p. 6
  18. ↑ Glimpses of Art, Architecture, and Buddhist Literature in Ancient India. ISBN 8170172268.
  19. ↑ Gombrich, Richard. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. 1988. p. 159
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Engineering skills in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka". LankaLibrary Forum. 2008-12-24. Archived from the original on 2013-05-08. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
  21. ↑ Ranaweera, M.P. "Some structural analyses related to the conservation of Jetavana Stupa". Proceedings of Engineering Jubilee Congress, University of Peradeniya.
  22. 1 2 Ranaweera, Dilan; Dassanayake, Rohan S.; Thantilage, Arjuna; Diyabalanage, Saranga; Premalal, E. V. A. (2026-06-03). "Multi-Analytical Characterization of Lime Plaster Technology in Ancient Anuradhapura (2000–1000 Years Old): A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Sri Lanka". Conservation. 6 (2): 69. doi:10.3390/conservation6020069. ISSN 2673-7159.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ↑ Chandani Kirinde & Sunil Jayathilake (27 May 2001). "Renovation of archaeological sites: Is it a question of preserving or perishing?". Sunday Times.
  24. ↑ Mandawala, Prashantha (2003). "The Jetavana Stupa Rediscovered". Silhouette 2002-2003, Journal of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defense Academy.
  25. ↑ Bouzek, Jan, ed. (1993). Ceylon between East and West: Anuradhapura Abhayagiri Vihara 1981 - 1984; excavations and studies (1. vyd ed.). Prague: Charles Univ. ISBN 978-80-7066-636-4. ...the only large complex of Late Hellenistic-Early Roman glass beads comes again from the Jetevana Stupa hoard.
  26. ↑ Strickland, Keir Magalie (2017). A Time of Change. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-78491-632-9. As discussed in Chapter Five (section 5.5.3), glass vessels in early Mediaeval Sri Lanka were an entirely imported phenomenon (Coningham 2006: 333), and are thus indicative of long distance trade to the west.
  27. ↑ Tomber, Roberta S. (2008). Indo-Roman trade: from pots to pepper. Duckworth debates in archaeology. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-3696-1. The most prolific imports at Anuradhapura come from Mesopotamia, mostly of Sasanian and Early Islamic date. These compromise Torpedo jars and Glazed Ware (Coningham & Batt 1999: 129; Seely et al. 2006: 99)." "Other Western finds excavated from Anuradhapura include five Late Roman bronze coins (Bopearachchi 2006: 13)...
  28. ↑ Bouzek, Jan, ed. (1993). Ceylon between East and West: Anuradhapura Abhayagiri Vihara 1981 - 1984; excavations and studies (1. vyd ed.). Prague: Charles Univ. ISBN 978-80-7066-636-4.

Further reading