Kinaray-a is the major regional language spoken in Antique, along with smaller groups that speak Inakeanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Inati/Inete, Hamtikanen, and Kaluyanon.
History
Etymology and Origins
Linguistically, Kinaray-a is categorized as a Western Bisayan language. Prior to the arrival of Hiligaynon, an older form of Kinaray-a, coined as Proto-Western-Bisayan was majorly used across communities in Panay.
The names Kinaray-a and Hiniraya are derived from the word iraya, meaning "upland" or "upstream." This contrasts with the neighboring language of Hiligaynon, which traces its name to the words ilig or ilawod, meaning "downstream" or "river flow."
Early scholars used names such as Hiniray-a, Iraya, Hiraya, and Hiniraya; Resurreccion Maza even coined "Kiniharay-a," which is hard to spell. Mulato insisted on "Hiniraya," deriving it from the root iraya—a high place far from the sea, or near the mountains—the opposite of Hiligaynon, from the root ilig. Mulato laid this out in his essays "Ang Hiligaynon" and "Hiniraya: Kagamutgamutan kang Hiligaynon"; these were among the earliest published discussions of the word "Kinaray-a.
Curiously, no speakers call their language Hiniraya. Ask anyone in Antique what their language is and the answer is "Kinaray-a" or "Karay-a takun." Only academics and textbook writers use Hiniraya. Newer Antique writers agreed on "Kinaray-a"—literally "of the Karay-a"—and since the 1980s it has been recognized as a major language of Panay. Both the CCP's Encyclopedia of Philippine Arts and Culture (1992) and the National Commission for Culture and the Arts use "Kinaray-a."
A myth from the famous Povedano Manuscript identifies Panay as Iraya and Negros as Bugto. In the myth, only the sea existed at first; King Manaul hurled great stones under the sea, and the lands that rose became the islands of the Philippines, including Iraya and Bugto. If the myth is followed, all of Panay would be Karay-a.
Pre-Hispanic History
Panay's tales and epics are entirely in Kinaray-a. Anthropologist Alicia Magos collected many "Panayanon" epic versions, chanted in Limbuk, an old variety of Kinaray-a, still understandable when chanted by a Karay-a. A passage from Jocano's "Labaw Donggon" text illustrates this:
Makuun si Labaw Donggon, ka ginukdan ginikanan, kay Abyang Alunsina: "Bukada nga bukada si Barugbugan Umbaw, linimbuay takop na, tinakpay gala-gala. Pagpiria araya, pagturudaytudaya, si kamahalan kong manggad, si bot-anan nga panapton — nga di kaw sa hanig na, di man sa tabun na, sa katung-anan pilia, dawgan dang alan-ana, bayu nga botangbotang nga ginabotang sa lawas, nga ginapalomadlomad. Dilargu nga sayasaya, sagibu sa buul na, sadsad sa burubuku."
Colonial Era and Socio-Economic Shift
Understanding the history of Kinaray-a requires first examining how Hiligaynon displaced it.
According to the linguistic research of David Zorc, it was not until the late pre-colonial period that immigrants from Eastern Visayas migrated to eastern Panay, bringing with them a language that would eventually evolve into Hiligaynon.This is corroborated by 17th-century documentations by Fray Ignacio Alcina, which noted that the inhabitants of eastern Panay, such as Oton, traced their ancestral roots back to Leyte.
Spanish friars documented the Kinaray-a (then referred to as Haraya) language as early as the 1600s.These early clerical records preserved the oldest known transcription of the language, a translation of the Ave Maria prayer:
"Maliag cao Maria, Nabota cao can gracia. An atun guinoon Dios dian canimo. Capin icao sa manga babai nga tanan, ig capin naman ang imon bata nga si Iesus. Santa Maria inang can Dios, igampo mo cami nga macasasala caraon, ig cum mamatai cami. Amen Iesus."
Despite these early documentation efforts, clerical authority eventually favored Hiligaynon for evangelization and liturgy.
The Yligueynes were enterprising traders, the first to deal with foreigners. The Iloilo River became an important route to the interior and a port for goods, and Iloilo grew into a major commercial and economic hub. Under Spanish and American rule, Iloilo became the region's center of politics, commerce, education, and culture, and the binisaya-panayano speech—shaped by Chinese merchants, Spanish friars, and settlers from Cebu, Bikol, Romblon, and nearby islands—became the language of power.
Spanish friars built churches in Iloilo and published novenas, devocionarios, catechisms, and prayer books in Hiligaynon. Bishop Mariano Cuartero, first Bishop of Jaro, published a cartilla and catechism for children; as author of Religio Cristiano Apostolica Romana—the first book written purely in Hiligaynon—plus 27 other books, he is called the "Father of the Hiligaynon language." Religious and devotional literature thus entrenched Hiligaynon as the Church's official language; masses, prayers, and hymns were written in it. Until the 1980s, even Antiqueño priests such as Padre Pablito Maghari and Padre Joaquin Dioso wrote masses in Hiligaynon (e.g., Misa Mamumugon, Misa Antiqueña).
Children of wealthy families in Antique, Aklan, and Capiz studied in Iloilo and had to learn Hiligaynon, lest they be called bukidnon or buki for speaking Kinaray-a or Aklanon. Elsewhere, elite families spoke Hiligaynon to communicate with servants—muchachas and muchachos who were Karay-a. The scholar Juanito Marcella (1970) observed that family letters were written in Hiligaynon because it symbolized education; literacy in it became a mark of knowledge, so everyone used the language of power to write and exchange ideas—even though statistics show more Hiligaynon speakers outside Iloilo City.
The Port of Iloilo
By the 1860s, early secular literature produced by high-society chroniclers in San Jose de Buenavista demonstrated that the Antiqueño elite were already adapting Hiligaynon linguistic markers into their written vocabulary (using sang and sia instead of the Kinaray-a kang and tana).
Then, a socio-economic shift transformed a geographic linguistic difference into a class-based hierarchy. While early settlements along the Malandog River were once bustling trading ports, the region's economic center of gravity eventually shifted eastward.The opening of the Port of Iloilo in 1855 spurred an economic boom tied to the sugar trade, establishing Hiligaynon as the language of commerce and the urban elite.
Marginalization and Renaissance
In Iloilo's "Golden Age" (1896–1937), komedya (moro-moro), zarzuelas from Spain, and Italian opera flourished as entertainment and business; Visayans flocked to Iloilo theaters (Fernandez, 1980). Komedya copied from Hiligaynon verse spread across Panay and Negros, and Ilonggo writers produced their own Hiligaynon zarzuelas; traveling sarswelistas reached even Antique's mountains and became models for local Antiqueño sarswela writers.
Around 1940, the Aglipayan priest Padre Jose Javellana, assigned to Talisay, Bugasong, wrote Hiligaynon sarswelas for parish fiestas, remembered as "Pangabuhi sang Imol," "Pilipinas, Panaad nga Natuman," and "Bugal nga Makahuluya." Pedro F. Checa (1900–1974) of Hamtic wrote komedya, sarswela, and drama in Hiligaynon, including "Unos nga Nagpuas," staged in Hamtic into the 1970s. Clemente Samulde (1910–1984) of Bugasong was also a noted sarswela and komedya writer-director for Bugasong, Laua-an, and Valderrama.
All Antiqueño komedya and sarswela of that era were written in Hiligaynon, though Deriada (1991) observed that when Kinaray-a appeared, it was only as the language of the Tigwati (clown) in komedyas and of servant characters in sarswelas.
During the late 19th-century sugar boom, many Antiqueños migrated to the neighboring island of Negros to serve as manual laborers (sacadas).This mass migration of cheap labor further entrenched a colonial-era social stigma against Kinaray-a, characterizing it unfairly as an unrefined language.
Modern day sacadas
Consequently, while Kinaray-a remained the primary daily language of Antique and western Iloilo, it currently faces until this day a slow erasure in formal settings and institutional literature. In recent decades, however, the language has seen a 'Kinaray-a Renaissance.' Spearheaded by local writers such as Alex Delos Santos and scholars in the late 20th to early 21st century, this ongoing cultural movement seeks to dismantle the historical stigma and promote authentic Kinaray-a literature.
Literary traditions
Kinaray-a literature has deep roots in Panay through forms such as the siday, luwa, amba, balitaw, banggiaanay, hurobatun, paktakun, and sugidanun. The island’s epics are chanted in ancient Kinaray-a, called Ligbuk by Alicia Magos, showing that Kinaray-a is a foundation of West Visayan culture.
Poetry
The siday is ancient Kinaray-a lyric poetry, used for epics, courtship (pamalaye), and babaylan healing chants (luy-a luy-a). W. H. Scott described it as long, winding, and rich in metaphor and allusion, while Corazon Villareal treated it as the general poetry of Panay and Negros.
Today, binalaybay means “poem” or “poetry,” from balay (house), suggesting the careful construction of sound and words. Free verse is called hilwalaybay, while dilambong refers to eloquent poetic language.
The luwa may be the true indigenous Karay-a poetry. Usually heard during wakes (bilasyon), it consists of short four-line verses with at least six or seven syllables per line. It also appears in komedya dialogue, religious prayers, and the angel’s chant during the Eastersugat or bitay.
Epics
The Panay BukidnonBinirayan Festival of Antique
Serious study of Panay’s epics came later, but they confirm Kinaray-a’s central role in the region’s literary heritage. F. Landa Jocano’s documentation of the Sulod epic Hinilawod inspired further research and artistic adaptations.
Major works include the Kinaray-a text and English translation of “Labaw Donggon” in Anthology of ASEAN Literatures: Epics of the Philippines (1984), Hinilawod: The Adventures of Humadapnon (2000), and Paranubliun Antique’s Hiniraya: Sugidanun ni Humadapnon kag Mali (1998). These versions differ because oral epics naturally changed across generations and communities.
The epics also inspired theater: Humadapnon kag Mali (1999), Panayanon: Epics of Panay (2000), and Hiniraya (2001). Alongside the epics, the Maragtas—the legend of Bornean Malays settling in Panay—became a major source for Ilonggo and Kinaray-a fiction, as well as Antique’s Binirayan Festival.
Aswang
Antique, Dumangas, Dueñas, and Capiz are widely associated with the Aswang , a feared underworld figure often imagined as an old woman with red eyes who can become a black dog or pig and eats human flesh. Famous local aswang stories include Lieutenant Gimo and Felicidad Villagracia of Tobias Fornier.
Another distinctive being is the tamawo, human-like forest and stream dwellers who are usually invisible. They are not naturally harmful but may appear when their home is disturbed—or when they become attached to a mortal.
The legend of Olayra, princess and owner of a golden ship, is linked to the tamawo and to the seafaring memory of ancient Visayans. Russel O. Tordesillas popularized her story through DYKA radio in the 1970s with Olayra: Prinsesa kang Dagat, drawing from Carit-an and Egaña folklore.
Tordesillas and early Kinaray-a writing
Tordesillas’s unpublished Olayra: Prinsesa kang Dagat—over 500 pages—and its sequel, Bilbo, ang Conul, bridge oral tradition and written Kinaray-a literature. Though they resemble novels, they are better understood as sugidanun: narratives blending history, legend, biography, and imagination. His other manuscripts include Usul Bahatur, Bangon, Tatay Esco, Bangon, Hustisia sa Espada, Ang Dose Pares, and Ang Capid. He also adapted foreign works for radio, including Papillon and Dune. Although recognition came late, he received the Bugal kang Antique–Datu Lubay Lifetime Achievement Award posthumously in 2005.
Other early Kinaray-a writers existed as well, including Cornelio E. Amaran, author of the unpublished Mabinudhion nga Kasing-kasing. These works show that Kinaray-a literary life continued despite Hiligaynon’s dominance.
Radio and theater
With no strong Kinaray-a print medium, radio and theater sustained the language and carried oral tradition into written literature. DYKA (Radyo Kauswagan Antique), owned by the Diocese of Antique, broadcast programs such as Panganduhoy and Labay-labay sa 801, featuring letters, poetry, riddles, advice, music, and original dramas.
Antique theater grew from religious ritual: Holy Week processions, the sugat, and the Aglipayan Hudas-hudas tradition all used dramatic performance. The komedya remained popular until the 1970s, while the sarswela and drama later became dominant forms.
The Binirayan Festival, held annually since 1974, reenacts the landing of the ten Bornean datus and draws from the Maragtas. Major productions include Hantik-i (1983), Aninipay (1979), Hantique Igcabuhi (1981), Aninipay: Binirayan kang Hilway (2003), Biray sa Kahilwayan (2003), and Binirayan: Pagpalayag sa lawud kang kauswagan (2004).
Priests also contributed through music and theater. Father Joaquin Dioso and Father Nicolas Rendon helped produce Aninipay and Hantique Igcabuhi, while Father Pablito Maghari wrote many masses and musical librettos, including Panagbalay and Bahandi sa Aminhan—though many were written in Hiligaynon.
Map of the Dialects of Panay Languages including Kinaray-a
Historically, there had not been much formal linguistic study on the dialects of Kinaray-a, though speakers of both Kinaray-a and Hiligaynon readily observed differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between towns. However, recent lexicophonetic research has established well-defined dialectal groupings, noting that while Antique shares substantial linguistic connections with Iloilo due to sustained historical contact, it contains highly distinct internal varieties.
Based on these studies, mainland Antique can be divided into five specific dialect areas under the "Antique Kinaray-a Zone", categorized from north to south:
Pandan Kinaray-a: Spoken in the northernmost towns of Pandan and Libertad. Due to their geographical isolation from Antique's commercial centers and closer proximity to Aklan, this dialect is sharply divergent and heavily associated with Akeanon. It uses unique vocabulary not found in the rest of Antique, such as /ʔuŋaʔ/ (child; standard KRJ: /bataʔ/), /pajuk/ (coconut milk; standard KRJ: /gataʔ/), and /ʔasawʔasaw/ (drizzle; standard KRJ: /tarithiʔ/).
North Antique Kinaray-a: A transitional zone covering Sebaste and Culasi. While it shares a huge proportion of features with the southern towns, its accent is reported to be more similar to Pandan.
Cangaranan-Tibiao Kinaray-a: A transitional zone in the middle of Antique, bridging the northern and southern towns around Laua-an, Barbaza, and Tibiao. It is characterized by the distinct use of the ngan and kan emphatic particles.
San Jose-Sibalom Kinaray-a: Assumed as the basis for standard Antique Kinaray-a, radiating from the Sibalom River. This core dialect covers San Jose de Buenavista and the satellite towns of Sibalom, Belison, Hamtic, Patnongon, and parts of Bugasong and Valderrama.
South Antique Kinaray-a: Spoken in the rugged, bypassed southernmost towns of Tobias Fornier and Anini-y. It is described as having a soft, rising-falling rhythm and is closely associated with the speech of neighboring San Joaquin in Iloilo. (There are also reports of a distinct mountain dialect in Hamtic called Hamtikanon that may relate to this southern grouping).
Separate from the mainland is the Caluyanon Zone. Because of the Caluya archipelago's extreme isolation and a mining-driven economy that draws laborers from across the Philippines, Caluyanon is considered extremely distinct. It exhibits a high level of spoken unintelligibility, heavily mixing Kinaray-a with Tagalog and Cebuano-Bisaya, to the extent that locals sometimes consider it an entirely separate language.
Outside of Antique, the differences and degrees to which the dialects differ depend largely on an area's proximity to other language-speaking regions. A distinct dialect of Karay-a is spoken in central Iloilo where many Hiligaynon loanwords are utilized, and some Kinaray-a words are pronounced harder, such as using giya ('here') in Janiuay and Santa Barbara compared to rigya or ja in southern Iloilo and San Jose de Buenavista. Two highly accented dialects of Kinaray-a can also be heard in the Iloilo towns of San Joaquin, Leon, and Tubungan.
Across all regions, some dialects differ only in consonant preference, such as alternating y and h (e.g., bayi vs. bahi for 'girl') or l and r (e.g., wala vs. wara). Other areas feature entirely distinct vocabulary differences, such as using sayëd vs. kadë ('ugly') or rangga vs. gëba ('defective').
Intelligibility with Hiligaynon
Due to geographic proximity and mass media, Kinaray-a-speakers can understand Hiligaynon (also erroneously known as Ilonggo) speakers. However, only Hiligaynon speakers who reside in Kinaray-a-speaking areas can understand the language. Those who come from other areas, like Iloilo City and Negros Island, have difficulty in understanding the language, if they can at all.
Most Karay-a also know Hiligaynon as their second language. To some extent, an intermediate dialect of Hiligaynon and Kinaray-a is spoken in Mindanao, mainly in Sultan Kudarat province.
Phonology and Orthography
Alphabet
The Kinaray-a alphabet (Katigbatohan Kinaray-a) consists of 29 letters. It includes 20 native symbols and 9 borrowed letters.
Kinaray-a features five primary vowels (palimug): A, E, I, O, and U. A distinguishing feature of Kinaray-a phonology is the presence of the schwa sound [ə].The phonemes /e/ and /o/ are used mostly in non-Karay-a words and were formerly allophonic with /i/ and /u/, respectively. The phonemes /i/ and /u/ may also be pronounced as [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Among some speakers, /u/ may be pronounced as [ə], such as when subâ is uttered as [səˈbaʔ] instead of as /suˈbaʔ/.
Vowel comparison of Karay-a, Hiligaynon and Tagalog cognates
There are two official orthographic conventions currently in use: a four-vowel-grapheme system released by the Komisyon sa Polong Kinaray·a[ceb] in 2016 in coordination with the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF), and a six-vowel-grapheme system recommended by the KWF in 2018. The latter builds on Brigadier GeneralVicente Pangantihon[es]'s introduction of a separate letter ⟨ə⟩ for /ɨ/ through the publication of Karay-a Rice Tradition Revisited, but using ⟨ë⟩ in ⟨ə⟩'s place. Karay-a writings predating Pangantihon's innovation had not graphemically distinguished between /ɨ/ and /u/. In 2018, the KWF elaborated,
Harmonization is not compulsory for older users of the language or individual organizations; it is specifically aimed at helping the Department of Education and teachers to teach any of the native languages. Other organizations are free to adopt their own stylebook in their own publications.
Vowels
The 2018 Pangantihon–KWF orthography provides for six vowel letters: ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨ë⟩ (previously ⟨ə⟩), ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩. They do not form diphthongs with each other and always indicate a separate syllable: there are as many vowels as there are syllables. Informal writing, however, contravenes this orthographic rule such as, for example, when words such as balunggay, kambiyo, lanaw, puwede, ruweda and tuáw are written as *balunggai, *kambio, *lanao, *puede, *rueda and *tuao.
⟨Ë⟩, referred to as malëm·ëk nga⟨i⟩ and which Pangantihon had originally written as ⟨ə⟩, represents /ɨ/, a phoneme that occurs natively in Karay-a and in some other languages spoken in the Philippines such as Ivadoy, Maranao and Pangasinan. ⟨Ë⟩ is also used for integrated words of relatively recent foreign origin.
Separate glyphs for /e/ and /u/ were introduced with the arrival of the Spaniards; namely ⟨e⟩ and ⟨u⟩.
Consonants
In line with the KWF's 2018 recommendation, the alphabet has 23 consonant letters: ⟨b⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨h⟩, ⟨j⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨q⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨w⟩, ⟨x⟩, ⟨y⟩ and ⟨z⟩. Of the above, ⟨c⟩, ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨q⟩ and ⟨x⟩ are used only in names and unintegrated loan words.
The digraph ⟨ng⟩ constitutes a single letter and represents the phoneme /ŋ/. In the old orthography, which followed the Spanish norms set forth by the Real Academia Española, this phoneme was represented by ⟨n͠g⟩, the tilde stretching over both letters in order to distinguish it from ⟨ng⟩ and ⟨ñ⟩, which represented the Spanish /ŋɡ/ and /ɲ/, respectively.
In contrast to ⟨ng⟩, the digraph ⟨ts⟩, which represents /t͡ʃ/, is not counted as a distinct letter.
Grammar
Nouns
Nouns (Pangngaran) in Kinaray-a are categorized into Proper Nouns (Pat-ud), which are capitalized, and Common Nouns (Di pat-ud), which are written in lowercase.
Pluralization of nouns can be achieved in three different ways; by adding the word mga before a singular noun (e.g., mga libro); by adding the prefix ka- and the suffix -an or -han to the noun, which eliminates the need for mga (e.g., kabulakan for flowers); by preceding the noun with a number or quantitative adjective (e.g., tatlo ka bisikleta).
Saying Diin kaw maagto? (literally 'Where are you going?') is a common way to greet people. The question does not need to be answered directly. The usual answer is an action like Maninda (literally 'to buy something on the market') instead of Sa tinda (literally, 'to the market'.)
Are you eating well? – Mayad man pangaën mo?
Good. – Mayad.
How are you feeling? – Musta bay pamatyagan mo? or: Ano bay pamatyag mo? (What do you feel?)
I don't know. – Wara takën kamaan. / Waay takën kamaan (or simply: Maan a. / Ambay a. / Ilam a. – informal, usually an annoyed expression)
Let's go! – Panaw ta / Halin ta ron! / Dali ron! (usually for hurrying up companions)
↑The vowel "u" is called matig-a nga "o" (the hard "o"). Hence, when a syllable with a vowel is pronounced lightly, the vowel "i" is substituted with the vowel "e". The opposite rule applies to the vowel "u". The practice however, is not the norm. What is more controlling for using either the vowels "i" and "o" or the introduced vowels "e" and "u" is what appears to the Karay-as pleasing to their eyes and ears. When in doubt on what vowel to use, it is always safe to use the indigenous vowels. The introduced "ë" vowel has no substitute. It will always be used since many Kinaray-a words have a schwa vowel sound.
↑Sonza, D. P. (1975). Early Bisayan culture as depicted in the Povedano and Pavon manuscripts. Southeast Asia Journal, 8(1), 46-59.
12F. Landa Jocano, “Labaw Donggon: Epikong Sulod,” in Jovita Ventura Castro et al., eds., Antolohiya ng mga Panitikang ASEAN: Mga Epiko ng Pilipinas, ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information, 1984, pp. 128–129.
12Leoncio P. Deriada, “The Emergence of Written Kinaray-a Literature,” paper presented at the Third Conference on West Visayan History and Culture, Iloilo City, 1994.
↑Leoncio P. Deriada, “Introduction,” Ani 19, December 1991, Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines.
↑Santiago Alv. Mulato, Ani 10, 1989, Cultural Center of the Philippines.
↑Leoncio P. Deriada, “Introduction,” Ani 19, December 1991, Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines.
↑Corazon D. Villareal, Siday: Mga Tulang Bayan ng Panay at Negros, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997.
↑Santiago Alv. Mulato, “Ang Hiligaynon,” Ani 10, Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1989, pp. 7–8.
↑Encarnacion Gonzaga, “Bisayan Literature (from Pre-Spanish Times to 1917),” M.A. Thesis, University of the Philippines, 1917, p. 24.
↑Emilio Zaldivar, “Sanday sin-o ang Silin-ohon sa aton Panulatan?” Hiligaynon, November 28, 1951, p. 51.
↑F. Landa Jocano, “Labaw Donggon: Epikong Sulod,” in Jovita Ventura Castro et al., eds., Antolohiya ng mga Panitikang ASEAN: Mga Epiko ng Pilipinas, ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information, 1984, pp. 128–129.
↑Leoncio P. Deriada, “The Emergence of Written Kinaray-a Literature,” paper presented at the Third Conference on West Visayan History and Culture, Iloilo City, 1994.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
↑Alicia P. Magos, The Enduring Maaram Tradition, 1992, pp. 117–120.
↑Russel O. Tordesillas, Olayra: Prinsesa kang Dagat, unpublished manuscript, ca. 1970s.
↑Alicia P. Magos, “Barko nga Bulawan: Tales of the Mythical Golden Boat of Panay,” in Iwao Ushijima and Cynthia Neri Zayas, eds., Binisaya nga Kinabuhi: Visayan Life, Quezon City: College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, 1996, pp. 257–277.
↑Russel O. Tordesillas, Olayra: Prinsesa kang Dagat, unpublished manuscript, ca. 1970s.
↑Russel O. Tordesillas, Olayra: Prinsesa kang Dagat, unpublished manuscript, ca. 1970s.
↑“The Russel Tordesillas Collection,” Ang Pagkitan, December 1987, newsletter of the Visayan Studies Program, University of the Philippines Visayas, Iloilo City.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, “Panuytoy sa Pagsulat kang Kinaray-a,” in Maaram: Studies on Antique, 2003.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
↑Consuelo M. Damaso, “Hiligaynon Drama,” in Philippine Drama: Twelve Plays in Six Philippine Languages, Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1987.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
↑Alex C. Delos Santos, The Rise of Kinaray-a, 2003.
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