Lithium plating

Lithium plating is the deposition of metallic lithium on the negative electrode of a lithium-ion cell, rather than insertion of lithium ions into the electrode material. It occurs mainly during high-rate or low-temperature charging and reduces capacity and Coulombic efficiency;the deposit can grow into dendrites that cause internal short circuits.

Mechanism

Plating occurs when lithium ions reach the negative electrode faster than they are inserted into the host material. The reaction competes with intercalation into graphite and is promoted by low temperature, high current and high state of charge.

Occurrence in commercial cells

Measurements on three-electrode pouch cells show that plating increases with charging rate and decreases with cell temperature. The deposit is spatially inhomogeneous; part is re-inserted during slow discharge, while the remainder is electrically isolated and reacts with the electrolyte, thickening the solid electrolyte interphase.

Detection

Plating is detected by high-precision coulometry and confirmed post mortem by microscopic or optical examination of the anode.

Mitigation

Mitigation includes charge-rate limits at low temperature and high state of charge, cell heating during fast charging, and modified electrolyte composition. The onset of plating constrains the maximum charging rate and extreme fast charging of commercial cells.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Waldmann, Thomas; Hogg, Björn-Ingo; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, Margret (2018). "Li plating as unwanted side reaction in commercial Li-ion cells – A review". Journal of Power Sources. 384: 107–124. Bibcode:2018JPS...384..107W. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.02.063.
  2. ↑ Choi, Charles Q. (February 15, 2023). "Cold-Weather Batteries Get a Boost". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved November 10, 2026.
  3. 1 2 Waldmann, Thomas; Hogg, Björn-Ingo; Kasper, Michael; Grolleau, Sébastien; Couceiro, César Gutiérrez; Trad, Khiem; Matadi, Bramy Pilipili; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, Margret (2016). "Interplay of Operational Parameters on Lithium Deposition in Lithium-Ion Cells: Systematic Measurements with Reconstructed 3-Electrode Pouch Full Cells". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 163 (7): A1232–A1238. Bibcode:2016JElS..163A1232W. doi:10.1149/2.0591607jes.
  4. 1 2 Burns, J. C.; Stevens, D. A.; Dahn, J. R. (2015). "In-Situ Detection of Lithium Plating Using High Precision Coulometry". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 162 (6): A959–A964. Bibcode:2015JElS..162A.959B. doi:10.1149/2.0621506jes.
  5. ↑ Waldmann, Thomas; Wilka, Marcel; Kasper, Michael; Fleischhammer, Meike; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, Margret (2014). "Temperature dependent ageing mechanisms in Lithium-ion batteries – A Post-Mortem study". Journal of Power Sources. 262: 129–135. Bibcode:2014JPS...262..129W. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.112.
  6. 1 2 Ahmed, Shabbir; Bloom, Ira; Jansen, Andrew N.; Tanim, Tanvir; Dufek, Eric J.; Pesaran, Ahmad; et al. (2017). "Enabling fast charging – A battery technology gap assessment". Journal of Power Sources. 367: 250–262. Bibcode:2017JPS...367..250A. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.06.055.
  7. ↑ Xu, Jijian; Zhang, Jiaxun; Pollard, Travis P.; Li, Qingdong; Tan, Sha; Hou, Singyuk; et al. (2023). "Electrolyte design for Li-ion batteries under extreme operating conditions". Nature. 614 (7949): 694–700. Bibcode:2023Natur.614..694X. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05627-8. OSTI 1924195. PMID 36755091.