Onboarding

A model of onboarding (adapted from Bauer & Erdogan, 2011)

Onboarding, also known as organizational socialization, is the process through which new employees acquire the knowledge, skills, and behaviors they need to become effective members of an organization. The term is most common in American English; in other varieties of English the process is often called "induction". A 2005 estimate put the share of workers in the United States who are organizational newcomers going through onboarding at up to 25%.

Common onboarding methods include formal meetings, lectures, videos, printed materials, and computer-based orientations that describe the organization's operations and culture.

Studies have found that socialization practices such as onboarding are associated with positive outcomes for new employees, including higher job satisfaction, better job performance, greater organizational commitment, and lower occupational stress and intent to quit.

The word "onboarding" was in use in management writing by the early 1970s.

Antecedents of success

Researchers group the factors that shape onboarding success into three categories: new employee characteristics, new employee behaviors, and organizational efforts.

New employee characteristics

Research has identified several newcomer characteristics that are associated with successful adjustment:

New employee behaviors

New employee behaviors are the actions newcomers take that help them adjust. Two examples are seeking information and feedback, and building relationships.

Information seeking occurs when new employees ask co-workers and supervisors questions to learn about their job and the organization's norms, expectations, procedures, and policies. It is considered beneficial during onboarding and throughout an employee's tenure.

Feedback seeking is similar to information seeking but refers to newcomers' efforts to learn how to behave in their new organization. A new employee may ask co-workers or supervisors how well they are performing certain tasks, or whether certain behaviors are appropriate in the social and political context of the organization. Through this feedback, newcomers learn which behaviors are expected, accepted, or discouraged. Feedback seeking varies across cultures: individuals high in self-assertiveness, and those in cultures low in power distance, report more feedback seeking than newcomers in cultures where self-assertiveness is low and power distance is high.

Relationship building, sometimes called networking, involves a new employee's efforts to develop rapport with co-workers and supervisors. This can happen informally, for example by talking with peers during breaks, or through more formal means such as organized company events.

Employee and supervisor relationships

Communication between new employees and their supervisors shapes how supervisors perceive newcomers. In one study, supervisors' overall impressions of new employees were influenced by the employee's reputation, delivery style, and message content, but when assessing work competence, supervisors focused mainly on message content.

Tactics

Organizations differ in the socialization activities they use to integrate new workers. These can include structured socialization tactics, formal orientation programs, recruitment practices, and mentoring. Some organizations take a systematic approach to socialization, while others take a "sink or swim" approach in which newcomers must work out norms and expectations on their own.

Van Maanen and Schein model (1979)

John Van Maanen and Edgar H. Schein identified six dimensions along which organizations' approaches to socialization can differ.

Collective and individual socialization

Collective socialization puts a group of new hires through the same training together. Examples include military basic training, pledging for fraternities and sororities, and graduate school education. Individual socialization gives each newcomer a unique experience, separate from others, as in apprenticeships, some internships, and on-the-job training.

Formal and informal socialization

Formal socialization trains newcomers separately from current employees, setting them apart while they learn their roles. It is found in programs such as police academies, internships, and apprenticeships. Informal socialization makes little or no distinction between newcomers and existing employees, and newcomers learn their roles through trial and error, as in on-the-job training assignments.

Sequential and random socialization

Sequential socialization gives newcomers a fixed series of identifiable steps leading to their target role. Random socialization occurs when the sequence of steps is unknown or ambiguous: there may be several steps or stages leading to a role, but no set order in which to take them.

Fixed and variable socialization

This dimension concerns whether newcomers know how long each stage of socialization will take. Fixed socialization gives newcomers a precise timetable; for example, some management trainees are placed on "fast tracks" with assignments that change on a set schedule. Variable socialization gives no such timetable. It is common in business careers, where the timing of promotion depends on factors such as the state of the economy and turnover.

Serial and disjunctive socialization

In serial socialization, experienced members of the organization act as role models and mentors for newcomers, as when a first-year police officer is assigned to patrol with a veteran officer. In disjunctive socialization, newcomers have no predecessors or role models to follow.

Investiture and divestiture socialization

This dimension concerns whether socialization affirms or strips away newcomers' personal identities. Investiture socialization affirms and builds on the skills, values, and attitudes newcomers bring with them. Divestiture socialization seeks to remove newcomers' existing characteristics so that they take on the values of the organization; some organizations require newcomers to sever previous ties and abandon old habits in order to build a new self-image.

Together, these tactics shape the type of information newcomers receive, its source, and how easily they can obtain it.

Jones' model (1986)

Building on the work of Van Maanen and Schein, Gareth Jones proposed in 1986 that the six dimensions could be reduced to two categories: institutionalized and individualized socialization. Organizations that use institutionalized tactics run step-by-step programs, group orientations, and mentoring programs; university orientation weekends for incoming students are one example. Organizations that use individualized tactics have new employees start work immediately and learn the organization's norms, values, and expectations along the way, which requires newcomers to take a more proactive role in seeking information and building relationships.

Formal orientations

Whatever socialization tactics an organization uses, formal orientation programs can help new employees understand the company culture, their work roles, and the social environment of the organization. Traditional programs consist of lectures, videos, and written material; computer-based orientations and intranets are also used to standardize training across locations. A review of the literature found that orientation programs are effective at communicating an organization's goals, history, and power structure.

Recruitment practices

Recruitment also contributes to socialization. A realistic job preview gives candidates an accurate picture of life inside the organization, helping both the organization and the applicant judge whether they are a good fit. Research has found that newcomers who receive more information about the job before they start tend to adjust better.

Mentorship

Mentorship plays an important role in the socialization of new employees. Ostroff and Kozlowski (1993) found that newcomers with mentors became more knowledgeable about the organization than newcomers without them. Mentors can help newcomers manage their expectations and feel comfortable in their new environment through advice and social support. Chatman (1991) found that newcomers were more likely to internalize the key values of their organization's culture if they had spent time with an assigned mentor and attended company social events. Ensher and Murphy (1997) examined how similarity in race and gender between mentors and protégés affected the amount of contact and the quality of mentoring relationships.

What often separates fast onboarding programs from slower ones is not the availability of a mentor but the presence of a "buddy", someone the newcomer can comfortably ask questions that are either trivial ("How do I order office supplies?") or politically sensitive ("Whose opinion really matters here?"). Buddies can help newcomers build relationships with co-workers in ways a manager cannot always facilitate.

Online onboarding

Online onboarding, also called digital onboarding, is onboarding carried out partly or entirely online. As in other forms of onboarding, the aim is for new hires to learn about the company and its culture and gain the knowledge they need to become productive team members. Online tools allow organizations to automate routine paperwork, track new employees' progress, and identify when a newcomer may need additional help.

Advantages and disadvantages

Proponents argue that online onboarding can be more interactive than traditional face-to-face sessions, which are often one-way presentations. Other proposed advantages are that managers no longer need to deliver the same material to each new hire in person, that every employee receives the same mandatory content, and that new hires can work through the material at their own pace and return to it later.

Online onboarding also requires more planning and structure than traditional onboarding to work well. It lacks face-to-face interaction between trainer and new employee, and in-person onboarding can make communication and the development of personal connections easier and keep new hires more engaged in the process.

Employee adjustment

Role clarity

Role clarity is a new employee's understanding of their job responsibilities and role in the organization. One goal of onboarding is to reduce newcomers' uncertainty so they can do their jobs correctly and efficiently. Because job descriptions often differ from the specific, day-to-day tasks an employee must perform, managers play an important part in explaining exactly what they expect. Employees who are unsure of their roles and responsibilities tend to be less productive, while those with a clear understanding of what is expected of them tend to be more productive. Role clarity has also been linked to job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the degree to which new employees feel capable of successfully carrying out their responsibilities. Employees who feel they can do the job fare better than those who feel overwhelmed; research has found that job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover are all correlated with self-efficacy. Social environments that encourage teamwork and employee autonomy can increase feelings of competence, with support from co-workers having a stronger effect than support from managers.

Social acceptance

Social acceptance gives new employees the support they need to succeed. While role clarity and self-efficacy affect a newcomer's ability to meet the requirements of a job, a sense of "fitting in" shapes how they view the work environment and has been shown to increase organizational commitment and reduce turnover. Newcomers can contribute to their own acceptance by interacting socially with co-workers and supervisors and taking part in group activities. The expected length of employment also affects social acceptance. Newcomers hired for long-term positions are more likely to work at fitting in with the group and avoiding conflict, while those expected to stay only briefly tend to be less invested in maintaining harmony with peers, which in turn affects how readily existing employees accept them.

Identity also affects social acceptance, and employees with marginalized identities who do not feel accepted may experience negative consequences. LGBT employees who conceal their identities at work are at higher risk for mental health problems and physical illness, and are more likely to report low job satisfaction and commitment. Employees with disabilities may struggle to be accepted because of co-workers' beliefs about their ability to complete their tasks. Black employees who face everyday discrimination at work report lower job satisfaction, which can affect their performance and create costs for organizations.

Knowledge of organizational culture

Knowledge of organizational culture refers to how well a new employee understands an organization's values, goals, roles, norms, and overall environment. Some organizations, for example, have strict but unspoken rules about how to interact with superiors, or about whether overtime is expected. Understanding the culture helps newcomers gain social acceptance and complete their work in a way that meets the organization's standards, and it has been linked to higher satisfaction and commitment and lower turnover.

Outcomes

Organizations have historically underestimated the influence of their practices on lasting employee attitudes and on financial results. Employees' job attitudes matter to organizations because of their link to employee engagement, productivity, and job performance. Research has shown that employees who are satisfied with their jobs and committed to their organization tend to perform better and are less likely to leave. Disengaged employees are costly to organizations because of lower performance and the expense of replacing those who leave.

Onboarding produces both short-term and long-term outcomes. Short-term outcomes include self-efficacy (a new employee's confidence in their ability to do the job), role clarity (their understanding of what the position requires), and social integration (the relationships they form and how comfortable they are in them). Long-term outcomes include organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

Limits and criticisms of onboarding theory

The outcomes of organizational socialization have been positively associated with uncertainty reduction, but these outcomes are not desirable for every organization. Jones (1986) and Allen and Meyer (1990) found that socialization tactics were related to commitment but negatively related to role innovation. Because formal socialization tactics shield newcomers from their full responsibilities while they "learn the ropes", newcomers may face role confusion once they fully enter the organization. Some organizations deliberately accept a degree of person–organization misfit to encourage innovative behavior. Depending on the organization's culture, it may be more desirable to increase ambiguity, despite the potentially negative effect on organizational commitment.

Socialization researchers have also found it difficult to determine how long newcomers take to adjust. Once the length of adjustment is better understood, organizations will be able to make better recommendations about what matters most at each stage.

Orientation sessions have also been criticized. An ethnographic study of a Japanese bank described a rigorous and highly ritualized training program for new employees, and early surveys found that newcomers rated orientation sessions as less helpful than other socialization practices. Later research has found that well-designed orientation programs can improve newcomers' socialization.

Executive onboarding

Executive onboarding is the application of general onboarding principles to helping new executives become productive members of an organization. It involves acquiring, accommodating, assimilating, and accelerating new executives, and is intended to improve productivity, executive retention, and corporate culture. Hiring teams emphasize making the most of a new executive's "honeymoon" period, described as either the first 90 to 100 days or the first full year. According to a 2009 report in the Financial Times, 40 percent of executives hired at the senior level are pushed out, fail, or quit within 18 months.

Onboarding is especially valuable for executives recruited from outside the organization, who may find it difficult to identify personal, organizational, and role risks in complex situations without formal support. It is also used for executives who are promoted into new roles or transferred from one business unit to another.

Frontline and hourly workers

Onboarding for frontline and hourly employees in sectors such as retail, hospitality, food service, call centres, warehousing, and manufacturing differs from onboarding for salaried office staff in several ways.

Because turnover is higher in these sectors, organizations must onboard new frontline workers more often. In the United States in 2024, the average monthly quits rate was 4.1 percent in accommodation and food services and 2.7 percent in retail trade, compared with 2.1 percent across all nonfarm employment. A 2022 analysis by McKinsey & Company reported that annual turnover among frontline retail employees had long been at least 60 percent.

In physically demanding jobs, the first weeks of employment carry elevated safety risks, so onboarding places greater emphasis on hazard training. A study of workers' compensation claims in Ontario found that workers in their first month on a job were more than four times as likely to have a lost-time injury claim as workers with more than a year in their current job. For jobs with heat exposure, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration reports that almost half of heat-related worker deaths occur on the first day on the job and more than 70 percent during the first week, and it recommends increasing new workers' exposure gradually over about a week so they can acclimatize.

Field research has also tested onboarding designs for high-turnover service roles. In an experiment with newly hired call-centre agents at the Indian outsourcing company Wipro, where more than half of new agents typically left within a few months, onboarding that encouraged newcomers to express their personal strengths was associated with lower turnover and higher customer satisfaction after seven months than conventional orientation; turnover in the control group was 47 percent higher than in the personal-identity group. In hospitality, a study of newcomers at nine luxury hotels in China found that institutionalized socialization tactics predicted higher job satisfaction and work engagement.

Management scholar Zeynep Ton has argued that retailers which invest in frontline employees, including by cross-training staff on both customer-facing and behind-the-scenes tasks and by standardizing routine processes with employee input, can break a cycle of understaffing, high turnover, and poor service.

Socialization in online organizations

The effectiveness of socialization varies with the structure and communication patterns of an organization, and with how easy it is to join or leave. Online organizations differ from conventional ones on both dimensions. Computer-mediated communication makes it harder to develop and maintain social relationships with other group members and can weaken organizational commitment. Joining and leaving online communities also typically costs less than joining or leaving a conventional employer, which results in lower commitment.

Socialization in most online communities is informal and individualized compared with socialization in conventional organizations. For example, lurkers in online communities rarely have opportunities for formal mentoring because they are less likely to be known to existing members. WikiProjects, the task-oriented groups on Wikipedia, rarely use institutionalized socialization tactics with new members: they seldom assign mentors or provide clear guidelines. Similarly, in the Python open-source software community, socialization remains informal even though the project has clear workflows and distinct social roles.

Recommendations for practitioners

Writing in MIT Sloan Management Review, Daniel Cable, Francesca Gino, and Bradley Staats recommended that organizations design onboarding around individual newcomer characteristics and encourage proactive behaviors, such as information seeking, that help newcomers develop role clarity, self-efficacy, social acceptance, and knowledge of organizational culture. Research has consistently linked these outcomes to higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance, and to lower turnover and intent to quit.

In terms of structure, evidence suggests that formal, institutionalized socialization is the most effective onboarding method. New employees who go through such programs tend to have more positive job attitudes and lower turnover than those socialized through individualized tactics. Some research also suggests that in-person onboarding is more effective than virtual onboarding: although computer-based orientation programs may appear less expensive, one study found that employees learned more about their roles and company culture through face-to-face orientation.

Some practitioners argue that onboarding should continue beyond a newcomer's first months as an ongoing development process, an approach sometimes called "everboarding".

See also

References

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Further reading