Viral disease

Viral disease
Viral disease
Other names	Viral infection
	Types of viral diseases
Specialty	Infectious disease
Causes	Virus
Medication	Antiviral drugs

A viral disease (or viral infection) occurs when an organism's body is invaded by pathogenic viruses, and infectious virus particles (virions) attach to and enter susceptible cells. Virosis is a disease or infection caused by a virus.

Examples include the common cold, gastroenteritis, COVID-19, the flu, and rabies.

Structural characteristics

Basic structural characteristics, such as genome type, virion shape and replication site, generally share the same features among virus species within the same family.^{[citation needed]}

Double-stranded DNA families: three are non-enveloped (Adenoviridae, Papillomaviridae and Polyomaviridae) and two are enveloped (Herpesviridae and Poxviridae). All of the non-enveloped families have icosahedral capsids.
Partly double-stranded DNA viruses: Hepadnaviridae. These viruses are enveloped.
One family of single-stranded DNA viruses infects humans: Parvoviridae. These viruses are non-enveloped.
Positive single-stranded RNA families: three non-enveloped (Astroviridae, Caliciviridae and Picornaviridae) and four enveloped (Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae, Retroviridae and Togaviridae). All the non-enveloped families have icosahedral nucleocapsids.
Negative single-stranded RNA families: Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, Filoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Paramyxoviridae and Rhabdoviridae. All are enveloped with helical nucleocapsids.
Double-stranded RNA genome: Reoviridae.
The Hepatitis D virus has not yet been assigned to a family, but is clearly distinct from the other families infecting humans.
Viruses known to infect humans that have not been associated with disease: the family Anelloviridae and the genus Dependovirus. Both of these taxa are non-enveloped single-stranded DNA viruses.

Pragmatic rules

Human-infecting virus families offer rules that may assist physicians and medical microbiologists/virologists.^{[citation needed]}

As a general rule, DNA viruses replicate within the cell nucleus while RNA viruses replicate within the cytoplasm. Exceptions are known to this rule: poxviruses replicate within the cytoplasm and orthomyxoviruses and hepatitis D virus (RNA viruses) replicate within the nucleus.^{[citation needed]}

Segmented genomes: Bunyaviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Arenaviridae, and Reoviridae (acronym BOAR). All are RNA viruses.
Viruses transmitted almost exclusively by arthropods: Bunyavirus, Flavivirus, and Togavirus. Some Reoviruses are transmitted from arthropod vectors. All are RNA viruses.
One family of enveloped viruses causes gastroenteritis (Coronaviridae). All other viruses associated with gastroenteritis are non-enveloped.

Baltimore group

This group of analysts defined multiple categories of virus. Groups:^{[citation needed]}

Clinically important virus families and species with characteristics
Family	Baltimore group	Important species	Envelopment
Adenoviridae	I	Adenovirus	N
Herpesviridae	I	Herpes simplex, type 1, Herpes simplex, type 2, Varicella-zoster virus, Epstein–Barr virus, Human cytomegalovirus, Human herpesvirus, type 8	Y
Papillomaviridae	I	Human papillomavirus	N
Polyomaviridae	I	BK virus, JC virus	N
Poxviridae	I	smallpox virus,monkeypox virus	Y
Parvoviridae	II	Parvovirus B19	N
Reoviridae	III	Rotavirus, Orbivirus, Coltivirus, Banna virus	N
Astroviridae	IV	Human astrovirus	N
Caliciviridae	IV	Norwalk virus	N
Coronaviridae	IV	Human coronavirus 229E, Human coronavirus NL63, Human coronavirus OC43, Human coronavirus HKU1, Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2	Y
Flaviviridae	IV	yellow fever virus, dengue virus, West Nile virus,, Japanese encephalitis virus,Saint Louis encephalitis virus,TBE virus, Zika virus	Y
Hepaciviridae	IV	Hepatitis C virus	Y
Hepeviridae	IV	Hepatitis E virus	N
Matonaviridae	IV	Rubella virus	Y
Picornaviridae	IV	coxsackievirus,echovirus,hepatitis A virus,poliovirus,rhinovirus	N
Arenaviridae	V	Lassa virus	Y
Bunyaviridae	V	Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Hantaan virus,Rift Valley fever virus	Y
Filoviridae	V	Ebola virus, Marburg virus	Y
Orthomyxoviridae	V	Influenza virus	Y
Paramyxoviridae	V	Hendra virus,Measles virus,Mumps virus,Nipah virus,Parainfluenza virus	Y
Pneumoviridae	V	Respiratory syncytial virus,human metapneumovirus	Y
Rhabdoviridae	V	Rabies virus	Y
Kolmioviridae	V	Hepatitis D virus	Y
Retroviridae	VI	HIV,HTLV-1,HTLV-2	Y
Hepadnaviridae	VII	Hepatitis B virus	Y

Clinical characteristics

The clinical characteristics of viruses may differ substantially among species within the same family:

Type	Family	Transmission	Diseases	Treatment	Prevention
Adenovirus	Adenoviridae	droplet contact fecal-oral venereal direct eye contact	gastroenteritis keratoconjunctivitis pharyngitis pharyngoconjunctival fever	None	Adenovirus vaccine hand washing covering mouth when coughing or sneezing avoiding close contact with the sick
Coxsackievirus	Picornaviridae	fecal-oral respiratory droplet contact	Hand, foot and mouth disease pleurodynia aseptic meningitis pericarditis myocarditis	None	hand washing covering mouth when coughing/sneezing avoiding contaminated food/water improved sanitation
Cytomegalovirus	Herpesviridae	vertical transmission bodily fluids	infectious mononucleosis Cytomegalic inclusion disease Premature birth liver, lung and spleen diseases in the newborn Small size at birth Small head size congenital seizures in the newborn	ganciclovir cidofovir foscarnet	hand washing avoid sharing food and drinks with others safe sex
Epstein–Barr virus	Herpesviridae	saliva	infectious mononucleosis Burkitt's lymphoma Hodgkin's lymphoma nasopharyngeal carcinoma	None	avoiding close contact with the sick
Hepatitis A virus	Picornaviridae	fecal-oral	acute hepatitis	Immunoglobulin (post-exposure prophylaxis)	Hepatitis A vaccine avoiding contaminated food/water improved sanitation
Hepatitis B virus	Hepadnaviridae	bodily fluids Vertical and sexual	acute hepatitis chronic hepatitis hepatic cirrhosis hepatocellular carcinoma	Lamivudine immunoglobulin Adefovir Entecavir Pegylated interferon alfa-2	Hepatitis B vaccine immunoglobulin (perinatal and post-exposure prophylaxis) avoiding shared needles/syringes safe sex
Hepatitis C virus	Hepaciviridae	blood sexual contact	acute hepatitis chronic hepatitis hepatic cirrhosis hepatocellular carcinoma	Ribavirin Pegylated interferon alfa-2	avoiding shared needles/syringes safe sex
Herpes simplex virus, type 1	Herpesviridae	direct contact saliva	herpes labialis, cold sores – can recur by latency gingivostomatitis in children tonsillitis & pharyngitis in adults keratoconjunctivitis	acyclovir famciclovir foscarnet penciclovir	avoiding close contact with lesions safe sex
Herpes simplex virus, type 2	Herpesviridae	sexual contact vertical transmission	Skin vesicles, mucosal ulcers, Oral and/or genital Can be latent Aseptic meningitis	acyclovir famciclovir foscarnet penciclovir cidofovir	avoiding close contact with lesions safe sex
HIV	Retroviridae	sexual contact blood breast milk vertical transmission	AIDS	HAART, such as protease inhibitors and reverse-transcriptase inhibitors	zidovudine (perinatally) blood product screening safe sex avoiding shared needles/syringes
Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E)	Coronaviridae	droplet contact fomites	common cold pneumonia bronchiolitis
Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63)	Coronaviridae	droplet contact	common cold rhinitis bronchitis bronchiolitis pneumonia croup
Human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43)	Coronaviridae		common cold pneumonia
Human coronavirus HKU1 (HCoV-HKU1)	Coronaviridae		common cold pneumonia bronchiolitis
Human herpesvirus, type 8	Herpesviridae	Saliva Sexual	Kaposi sarcoma multicentric Castleman disease primary effusion lymphoma	many in evaluation-stage	avoid close contact with lesions safe sex
Human papillomavirus	Papillomaviridae	direct contact sexual contact vertical transmission	(common, flat, plantar and anogenital warts, laryngeal papillomas, epidermodysplasia verruciformis) Malignancies for some species (cervical carcinoma, squamous cell carcinomas)	liquid nitrogen laser vaporization cytotoxic chemicals interferon cidofovir	HPV vaccine avoiding close contact with lesions safe sex
Influenza virus	Orthomyxoviridae	droplet contact	influenza (Reye syndrome)	amantadine rimantadine zanamivir oseltamivir	influenza vaccine amantadine rimantadine hand washing covering mouth when coughing/sneezing avoiding close contact with the sick
Measles virus	Paramyxoviridae	droplet contact	measles postinfectious encephalomyelitis	None	MMR vaccine quarantining the sick avoiding contact with the sick
Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV)	Coronaviridae	close human contact	Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
Mumps virus	Paramyxoviridae	droplet contact	mumps	None	MMR vaccine avoiding close contact with the sick
Parainfluenza virus	Paramyxoviridae	droplet contact	croup pneumonia bronchiolitis common cold	None	hand washing covering mouth when coughing/sneezing
Poliovirus	Picornaviridae	fecal-oral	poliomyelitis	None	Polio vaccine avoiding contaminated food and water improved sanitation
Rabies virus	Rhabdoviridae	animal bite droplet contact	rabies (fatal encephalitis)	Post-exposure prophylaxis	rabies vaccine avoiding rabid animals
Respiratory syncytial virus	Pneumoviridae	droplet contact hand to mouth	bronchiolitis pneumonia influenza-like syndrome severe bronchiolitis with pneumonia	(ribavirin)	hand washing avoiding close contact with the sick palivizumab in high risk individuals covering mouth when coughing/sneezing
Rubella virus	Togaviridae	Respiratory droplet contact	congenital rubella German measles	None	MMR vaccine avoiding close contact with the sick
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)	Coronaviridae	droplet contact	severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)	Coronaviridae	droplet contact	coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)	Molnupiravir, Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir	hand washing covering mouth when coughing or sneezing social distancing
Varicella-zoster virus	Herpesviridae	droplet contact direct contact	chickenpox herpes zoster Congenital varicella syndrome	Varicella: acyclovir famciclovir valacyclovir Zoster: acyclovir famciclovir	Varicella: varicella vaccine varicella-zoster immunoglobulin avoiding close contact with the sick Zoster: vaccine varicella-zoster immunoglobulin

References

↑ Taylor M, Kobiler O, Enquist LW (2012). "Alphaherpesvirus axon-to-cell spread involves limited virion transmission". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (42). PNAS: 17046–17051. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10917046T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212926109. PMC 3479527. PMID 23027939.
↑ "virosis". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871. Retrieved 2026-05-09.
↑ see below in this article
↑ Hunt M. "Arboviruses". University of South Carolina School of Medicine.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 Fisher B, Harvey RP, Champe PC (2007). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (PDF). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series. Hagerstown MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 354–366. ISBN 978-0-7817-8215-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Table 1 in: Dimitrov DS (2004). "Virus entry: molecular mechanisms and biomedical applications". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2 (2): 109–22. doi:10.1038/nrmicro817. ISSN 1740-1526. PMC 7097642. PMID 15043007.
↑ Adams MJ, Carstens EB (Jul 2012). "Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2012)" (PDF). Arch. Virol. 157 (7): 1411–22. doi:10.1007/s00705-012-1299-6. PMC 7086667. PMID 22481600.
↑ Whitley RJ (1996). Baron S, et al. (eds.). Herpesviruses. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1. Archived from the original on October 29, 2007.
↑ Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA (2005). Medical Microbiology (5th ed.). Elsevier Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-03303-9.
1 2 3 de Villiers EM, Fauquet C, Broker TR, Bernard HU, zur Hausen H (2004). "Classification of papillomaviruses". Virology. 324 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2004.03.033. PMID 15183049.
1 2 3 "Polyomavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 Page 273 in: Lennette's Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections (Fourth ed.). CRC Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1420084962.
↑ Murillo A, Vera-Estrella R, Barkla BJ, Méndez E, Arias CF (2015). "Identification of Host Cell Factors Associated with Astrovirus Replication in Caco-2 Cells". J. Virol. 89 (20): 10359–70. doi:10.1128/JVI.01225-15. PMC 4580174. PMID 26246569.
↑ Stapleford KA, Miller DJ (2010). "Role of Cellular Lipids in Positive-Sense RNA Virus Replication Complex Assembly and Function". Viruses. 2 (5): 1055–68. doi:10.3390/v2051055. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 3187604. PMID 21994671.
1 2 Cook S, Moureau G, Harbach RE, Mukwaya L, Goodger K, Ssenfuka F, Gould E, Holmes EC, de Lamballerie X (2009). "Isolation of a novel species of flavivirus and a new strain of Culex flavivirus (Flaviviridae) from a natural mosquito population in Uganda". Journal of General Virology. 90 (11): 2669–78. doi:10.1099/vir.0.014183-0. ISSN 0022-1317. PMC 2885038. PMID 19656970.
1 2 "Hepeviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
↑ Simon-Loriere E, Holmes EC (2011). "Why do RNA viruses recombine?". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (8): 617–26. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2614. ISSN 1740-1526. PMC 3324781. PMID 21725337.
↑ "2018.013S.R.Matonaviridae". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Archived from the original on October 29, 2019. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
↑ Tuthill TJ, Groppelli E, Hogle JM, Rowlands DJ (2010). Picornaviruses. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 343. pp. 43–89. doi:10.1007/82_2010_37. ISBN 978-3-642-13331-2. ISSN 0070-217X. PMC 3018333. PMID 20397067.
1 2 3 "Arenaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 "Bunyaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 "Filoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Orthomyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Paramyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
↑ "Pneumoviridae ~ ViralZone page". viralzone.expasy.org. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
1 2 3 4 "Rhabdoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 "Deltavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
↑ "Retroviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.
1 2 3 4 "Enterovirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
↑ Repass GL, Palmer WC, Stancampiano FF (September 2014). "Hand, foot, and mouth disease: Identifying and managing an acute viral syndrome". Cleve Clin J Med. 81 (9): 537–43. doi:10.3949/ccjm.81a.13132. PMID 25183845.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 "Herpesviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 3 4 5 6 "Babies Born with CMV (Congenital CMV Infection)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 13, 2017. Retrieved June 17, 2017. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
1 2 3 4 "Picornaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-12-20. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Hepadnaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 "Flaviviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-17. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 3 4 5 "Human immunodeficiency virus 1". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 3 4 "Papillomaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-03-05. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
1 2 3 "Togaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-20. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

External links

[1] Taylor M, Kobiler O, Enquist LW (2012). "Alphaherpesvirus axon-to-cell spread involves limited virion transmission". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (42). PNAS: 17046–17051. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10917046T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212926109. PMC 3479527. PMID 23027939.

[2] "virosis". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871. Retrieved 2026-05-09.

[3] see below in this article

[4] Hunt M. "Arboviruses". University of South Carolina School of Medicine.

[Lippincott2007-5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 Fisher B, Harvey RP, Champe PC (2007). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (PDF). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series. Hagerstown MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 354–366. ISBN 978-0-7817-8215-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2020.

[Dimitrov2004-6] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Table 1 in: Dimitrov DS (2004). "Virus entry: molecular mechanisms and biomedical applications". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2 (2): 109–22. doi:10.1038/nrmicro817. ISSN 1740-1526. PMC 7097642. PMID 15043007.

[7] Adams MJ, Carstens EB (Jul 2012). "Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2012)" (PDF). Arch. Virol. 157 (7): 1411–22. doi:10.1007/s00705-012-1299-6. PMC 7086667. PMID 22481600.

[Baron-8] Whitley RJ (1996). Baron S, et al. (eds.). Herpesviruses. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1. Archived from the original on October 29, 2007.

[Elsevier-9] Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA (2005). Medical Microbiology (5th ed.). Elsevier Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-03303-9.

[deVilliers2004-10] 1 2 3 de Villiers EM, Fauquet C, Broker TR, Bernard HU, zur Hausen H (2004). "Classification of papillomaviruses". Virology. 324 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2004.03.033. PMID 15183049.

[viralzone-adenovirus-11] 1 2 3 "Polyomavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[lennette2010-12] 1 2 3 Page 273 in: Lennette's Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections (Fourth ed.). CRC Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1420084962.

[13] Murillo A, Vera-Estrella R, Barkla BJ, Méndez E, Arias CF (2015). "Identification of Host Cell Factors Associated with Astrovirus Replication in Caco-2 Cells". J. Virol. 89 (20): 10359–70. doi:10.1128/JVI.01225-15. PMC 4580174. PMID 26246569.

[StaplefordMiller2010-14] Stapleford KA, Miller DJ (2010). "Role of Cellular Lipids in Positive-Sense RNA Virus Replication Complex Assembly and Function". Viruses. 2 (5): 1055–68. doi:10.3390/v2051055. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 3187604. PMID 21994671.

[CookMoureau2009-15] 1 2 Cook S, Moureau G, Harbach RE, Mukwaya L, Goodger K, Ssenfuka F, Gould E, Holmes EC, de Lamballerie X (2009). "Isolation of a novel species of flavivirus and a new strain of Culex flavivirus (Flaviviridae) from a natural mosquito population in Uganda". Journal of General Virology. 90 (11): 2669–78. doi:10.1099/vir.0.014183-0. ISSN 0022-1317. PMC 2885038. PMID 19656970.

[viralzone-hepe-16] 1 2 "Hepeviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[Simon-LoriereHolmes2011-17] Simon-Loriere E, Holmes EC (2011). "Why do RNA viruses recombine?". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 9 (8): 617–26. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2614. ISSN 1740-1526. PMC 3324781. PMID 21725337.

[18] "2018.013S.R.Matonaviridae". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Archived from the original on October 29, 2019. Retrieved 2020-05-28.

[TuthillGroppelli2010-19] Tuthill TJ, Groppelli E, Hogle JM, Rowlands DJ (2010). Picornaviruses. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 343. pp. 43–89. doi:10.1007/82_2010_37. ISBN 978-3-642-13331-2. ISSN 0070-217X. PMC 3018333. PMID 20397067.

[viralzone-arena-20] 1 2 3 "Arenaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-bunya-21] 1 2 "Bunyaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-filo-22] 1 2 3 "Filoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-orthomyxo-23] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Orthomyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-paramyxo-24] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Paramyxoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[25] "Pneumoviridae ~ ViralZone page". viralzone.expasy.org. Retrieved 2020-08-17.

[viralzone-rhabdo-26] 1 2 3 4 "Rhabdoviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-delta-27] 1 2 3 "Deltavirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-retro-28] "Retroviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. Retrieved 2015-10-03.

[viralzone-coxsackie-29] 1 2 3 4 "Enterovirus". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-12.

[Repass2014-30] Repass GL, Palmer WC, Stancampiano FF (September 2014). "Hand, foot, and mouth disease: Identifying and managing an acute viral syndrome". Cleve Clin J Med. 81 (9): 537–43. doi:10.3949/ccjm.81a.13132. PMID 25183845.

[viralzone-herpesviridae-31] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 "Herpesviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-02. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[cdcmeg2017-32] 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Babies Born with CMV (Congenital CMV Infection)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 13, 2017. Retrieved June 17, 2017. This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

[viralzone-hepatitisA-33] 1 2 3 4 "Picornaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-12-20. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[viralzone-hepatitisB-34] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Hepadnaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[viralzone-hepatitisC-35] 1 2 "Flaviviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-17. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[viralzone-hiv-36] 1 2 3 4 5 "Human immunodeficiency virus 1". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[viralzone-papilloma-37] 1 2 3 4 "Papillomaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2015-03-05. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

[viralzone-toga-38] 1 2 3 "Togaviridae". ViralZone. SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-20. Retrieved 2015-10-10.

Authority control databases
International	GND FAST
National	United States France BnF data Czech Republic 2 Spain Latvia Israel
Other	Yale LUX