Takrur

Takrur
9th century–1456
Location of Takrur
CapitalTumbere Jiinge (Dya'ogo, Manna dynasties), Taaga (Laam Taga), Hoorewendu (Laam Termess)
Common languagesSerer, Fula, Arabic
Religion
Islam (Official)
Serer religion
DemonymsTakruri, Takarir
GovernmentMonarchy
• 1030s
War Jabi
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
9th century
• Establishment of Manna dynasty
9th century
• Adoption of Islam by War Jabi
1030s
• Alliance with the Almoravid Dynasty
c. 1050s
21 March 1056
1086
• Conquered and vassalized by Mali Empire
c. 1285
• Conquered by Jolof Empire
1456
Succeeded by
Jolof Empire
Denianke Kingdom

Takrur, Tekrur, or Tekrour (c. 500 – c. 1456) was a state based in the Senegal River in modern-day Senegal which was at its height in the 11th and 12th centuries, roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. It lasted in some form into the 18th century.

History

Origin

There are a number of conflicting theories about the deep past of the Senegal River valley, where the Kingdom of Takrur would take root. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley. John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer". The outsiders may, however, have been Soninke rather than Berber, and the native population may have already spoken Fula. Regardless, the region has been an ethnic melting pot from the earliest traceable periods up to the present, although Fula have come to dominate in more recent centuries.

Historian Andrew Clark writes that the state may have been founded as early as 100 CE. The founding dynasty was called Dya'ogo. Traditional historians disagree on their origin and ethnic background (assuming a relationship can be drawn at all with ethnic labels as understood today). They were blacksmith-kings, and supposedly introduced iron-working and ore extraction to the region. This founding dynasty was eventually overthrown by the Tonjon dynasty sometime during the 8th century.

Manna dynasty

A Soninke clan under Mamadu Sumaare, originally from Wagadu, conquered Takrur in the 9th or 10th century, establishing the Manna dynasty and gradually melding into the local culture. They may have been Nyakhates from Diarra, Soumares from Guidimakha, or Jaabis.

Takrur was first mentioned in Arab sources in the 9th century under the name "Zaghi b. Zaghi." In 1035 king War Jabi introduced Sharia law, becoming the first ruler to officially adopt Islamic orthodoxy in the Sahel. During his reign he launched a Holy War against the King of Silla, subjugating them and converting the people to Islam.

He died around 1040-1041 and was succeeded by his son, Lebi ibn War Jabi, who would go on to start an alliance with the newly established Almoravid Dynasty to counter the power of the Ghana Empire. Having fought alongside Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni at the battle of Tabfarilla, Lebi may have provided more military help and financial aid to the Almoravids, helping conquer up to Morocco and Al-Andalus. 4,000 black cavalrymen, of possible Takruri origin, were crucial to the Almoravid victory at the 1086 Battle of Sagrajas in Al-Andalus. This alliance was maintained for most of the next 200 years.

During this period Takrur held a dominant position in regional trade, controlling a series of trading posts and cities linking the salt mines of Awlil on the coast north of the mouth of the Senegal to the interior. It's ruler during this time is praised for his strength and justice. In the 12th century, Silla, a vassal of Takrur, went to war against Wagadu. Its decline meant that Takrur was able to exert more control over the trade routes moving gold from Bambouk to desert-side markets.

Serer Exodus

"Today, the Serer retain much of their old culture, customs and traditions. In fact, it's not uncommon to hear how Serer culture has survived through the centuries in spite of all the forces which tried to destroy it."

— Godfrey Mwakikagile,

When Islam and Sharia was introduced to the Kingdom by War Jabi, it led to the persecution of the local Serers. The lamanic class, whose role also included the safeguarding of their traditional Serer spirituality, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, but also their power and wealth as landowners. It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works as lamlam, lemlem, or damdam which may be a corruption of the Serer title lamaan. The persecution of the Serers in the 11th century led to their first generally accepted exodus from Tekrur, moving southwards.

During the 13th century, a civil war broke out. The descendants of the Serers who chose to remain decided to migrate southwest, first to the Ferlo, and then to Siin and Saloum rather than be converted to Islam. Ibrahima Thiaw advanced the claim that this was the process by which a distinct 'Serer' identity first emerged, separate from the rest of the Takruri population. Professor Issa Laye Thiaw, Professor Cheikh Anta Diop, the 18th century French archaeologist Paul Pierret, and Professor Molefi Kete Asante et al... amongst other historians posits that the name 'Serer' is sacred and pre-Islamic, leading Asante et al. to conclude that, "they are an ancient people whose history reaches deep into the past..." and that would be consistent with their "strong connection to their ancient religious past".

Professor Trimingham notes that, in the region, Takrur became the first to adopt Islam, but in so doing, completely lost its Serer identity.

Vassalage and decline

The 13th century was a period of political crisis in Takrur. The last Manna king, Cengaan Sumaare, is remembered as a bloodthirsty tyrant who was overthrown by his own people. The western parts of the kingdom became independent. Around 1286, the Mali Empire conquered Takrur and put it under a military dictatorship ruled by farba (governors), remembered locally as the Tonjon dynasty. Mali's power in the region diminished in the 14th century, however, and the Fula Lam Termess and Lam Taaga dynasties were able to take power. The region may also have been controlled by the Kingdom of Diarra.

Takrur was conquered by the Jolof emperor Tyukuli N'Diklam in the 15th century, who split the region between multiple farba. By 1506, however, the Burba's authority was weakening, and the farba fell to fighting amongst themselves. Koli Tengella, a Fula warlord native to Takrur but coming from Futa Jallon, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the Denanke dynasty. This would last until 1776 when the Fouta Revolution, led by Muslim clerics, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.

Timeline

Dates are approximate and often disputed by different sources or authors.

TimeEvents
6-9th centuriesDya-ogo dynasty
9-11th centuriesSoninke Manna dynasty
1030sTakrur converted to Islam under War Jabi
1030–1035Serers defeated by the Muslims leading to their first exodus.
1086Battle of Sagrajas
Nov 1087Serers led by Amar Godomat defeated Almoravid leader Abu Bakr ibn Umar, killing him at the Battle of Khoo mak (commonly known as Lake Cayor)
c. 1286Mali conquest of Takrur
1456–1506Jolof rule of Takrur
1506–1526Civil war between farbas
1520–1521Invasion by Koli Tenguella
1526Koli Tenguella establishes firm control over Takrur, founds the Denanke Kingdom

Economy

Takrur was a trading centre, where gold from the Bambuk region,: 44  salt from the Awlil, and Sahel grain were exchanged for wool, copper, beads, and jewelry. The kingdom's cotton cloth was among its most renowned exports.

Territory

At its height in the medieval period, Takrur was a major polity of the Middle Senegal Valley. In the twelfth century, al-Idrīsī describes Takrur as the dominant polity of the region, with Silla, on the northern bank of the Senegal, among the states belonging to its ruler. He also describes Barisa as a smaller commercial settlement dependent upon Takrūr.

The political and settlement core of early Takrur lay in the Middle Senegal Valley floodplain, particularly in the area of the Île à Morphil. Archaeological research in the valley identifies the Île à Morphil as lying within the broad area historically attributed to the early polity of Takrur, while the capital of Takrūr is described as having been situated in the Middle Senegal Valley floodplain. The region underwent a major transformation in settlement scale and complexity between the ninth and eleventh centuries, contemporaneous with the emergence of Takrūr and Silla.

The precise territorial extent of medieval Takrur remains uncertain. Ibn Saʿīd states that the territory of the Maqzāra, the population associated with Takrūr in his account, lay predominantly north of the Senegal, with only a smaller portion south of the river, where most of the land belonged to the Lamlam. Takrūr itself, however, extended across the river: its capital was situated on both banks of the Senegal.

The northern limits of the medieval kingdom cannot be established with the same certainty. Oumar Kane's description of territory extending toward the Assaba, southern Tagant and Aleg concerns the later geographical and political history of Fuuta Tooro, particularly its period of expansion under the later Fulɓe dynasties, rather than providing a securely documented maximum frontier for medieval Takrūr. Kane distinguishes this later Fuuta Tooro from ancient Takrūr, whose “cradle” he places in the Senegal valley between Dagana and Dembankani.

They also controlled, or at least had significant influence over, the area downstream that would become Waalo.

The Gorgol River valley was the heartland of the kingdom, and was the site of the Dya'ogo capital Tumbere Jiinge.

Takrur as a toponym

Takruri was a term, like Bilad el-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry, and is still in use as such in the Middle East, with some corruption, as in Takruni, pl. Takarna تكروني in Saudi Arabia, and in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in the form Tukrir. The district of Bulaq Al-Dakrur بولاق الدكرور in Cairo is named after an ascetic from West Africa. In the Middle East Toucouleurs are still referred to as Tukrir to this day which was historically also a term among Habesha people for the west African population living along the modern Sudanese border.

Takrur was the term used by the region's inhabitants up until the 15th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries, however, it was gradually replaced by Futa Toro.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Charles Becker et Victor Martin, « Rites de sépultures préislamiques au Sénégal et vestiges protohistoriques », Archives Suisses d'Anthropologie Générale, Imprimerie du Journal de Genève, Genève, 1982, tome 46, no 2, p. 261-293
  2. ↑ Chavane, Bruno A. (2000). Villages de l'ancien Tekrour. Recherches archéologiques dans la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal. KARTHALA Editions. ISBN 2865371433.
  3. ↑ Hrbek, I. (1992). General History of Africa volume 3: Africa from the 7th to the 11th Century: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century v. 3 (Unesco General History of Africa (abridged)). James Carey. p. 67. ISBN 978-0852550939.
  4. ↑ Creevey, Lucy (August 1996). "Islam, Women and the Role of the State in Senegal". Journal of Religion in Africa. 26 (3): 268–307. doi:10.1163/157006696x00299. JSTOR 1581646.
  5. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 56.
  6. ↑ Fage, John Donnelly; Oliver, Roland (1975). "Upper and Lower Guinea". (Fage, John Donnelly; Oliver, Roland (editors)). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 484 ISBN 978-0521209816
  7. 1 2 Brooks 1985, p. 36.
  8. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 55.
  9. ↑ Thiaw 2013, p. 96.
  10. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 135.
  11. ↑ Clark, Andrew (2005). "Futa Toro". Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2.
  12. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 133.
  13. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 27.
  14. ↑ Brooks, George E. (2019-04-09). Landlords And Strangers: Ecology, Society, And Trade In Western Africa, 1000-1630. Routledge. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-429-71923-3.
  15. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 136.
  16. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 64.
  17. ↑ Lewicki, Tadeusz (1974). Arabic external sources for the history of Africa to the South of Sahara. Prace Komisji Orientalistycznej / Polska Akademia Nauk, Oddział w Krakowie (2. impr ed.). London: Curzon Press [u.a.] pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-7007-0020-2.
  18. 1 2 Colvin, Lucie Gallistel, Historical dictionary of Senegal, Scare Crow Press Inc. (1981), p. 18, ISBN 0-8108-1369-6
  19. ↑ al-Naqar, Umar (1969). Takrur the History of a Name. Cambridge University Press. p. 367.
  20. ↑ Levtsiyon, Neḥemyah; Levtsiyon, Neḥemyah (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. Studies in African history (1. publ ed.). London: Methuen. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-416-75830-6.
  21. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 65.
  22. ↑ Niane, Djibril Tamsir; Unesco, eds. (1984). Africa from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. General history of Africa. London : Berkeley, Calif: Heinemann; University of California Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-435-94810-8.
  23. ↑ Hrbek, Ivan; Unesco, eds. (1992). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. General history of Africa (Vol. 3 ed.). London : Berkeley, Calif., U.S.A. : Paris: J. Currey; University of California Press; UNESCO. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-85255-093-9.
  24. ↑ Al-Naqar, 'Umar (1969). "Takrūr the History of a Name". The Journal of African History. 10 (3): 367. doi:10.1017/S002185370003632X. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 179671.
  25. ↑ Ibn-Ḫallikān, Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad (1871). Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, 4. Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. pp. 455–456.
  26. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 144.
  27. ↑ Gomez, Michael (2018). African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780691177427.
  28. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 140.
  29. ↑ Hopkins, J. F. P.; Levtzion, Nehemia, eds. (1981). Corpus of early Arabic sources for West African history. Fontes historiae Africanae. Cambridge [Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-521-22422-2.
  30. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 103.
  31. ↑ Brooks 1985, p. 111.
  32. ↑ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p 231, ISBN 9987932223
  33. 1 2 Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, ISBN 2-86537-143-3
  34. ↑ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3
  35. ↑ Thiaw 2013, p. 107.
  36. ↑ Diop, Abdoulaye Bara, "Le tenure foncière en milieu rural Wolof (Sénégal): Historique et actualité." Notes Africaines, no. 118, (April 1968), IFAN, Dakar, pp. 48–52
  37. ↑ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia:, p. 224
  38. ↑ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, The Gambia and Its People:, p 138
  39. ↑ Klein, Martin A., Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, pp 7 & 63
  40. ↑ Gravrand, Henry, La Civilisation sereer: Cossan, vol. 1. pp 115–18
  41. ↑ Gravrand, Henry, La civilisation Sereer: Pangool, vol. 2, p. 13
  42. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 76.
  43. ↑ Thiaw 2013, p. 97.
  44. ↑ Thiaw, Issa Laye, La Religiosité des Sereer, avant et pendant leur Islamisation. Éthiopiques, No: 54, Revue Semestrielle de Culture Négro-Africaine. Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre (1991).
  45. ↑ Pierret, Paul, "Dictionnaire d'archéologie égyptienne", Imprimerie nationale 1875, p. 198-199
  46. ↑ Pierret, Paul, "Dictionnaire d'archéologie égyptienne", Imprimerie nationale 1875, p. 198-199 [in] Diop, Cheikh Anta, Precolonial Black Africa., (translated by Harold Salemson), Chicago Review Press (1988), p. 65
  47. ↑ Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama; Encyclopedia of African Religion, SAGE Publications (2008), pp. 606-7, ISBN 9781506317861 (retrieved 2 March 2025)
  48. ↑ Trimingham, John Spencer, A history of Islam in West Africa, pp. 174, 176 & 234, Oxford University Press, USA (1970)
  49. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 64–6.
  50. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 147.
  51. 1 2 Kane 2004, p. 72.
  52. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 148.
  53. ↑ Ba 2017, p. 124.
  54. 1 2 Boulegue 2013, p. 29.
  55. ↑ Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. Le Djoloff et ses Bourba. Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. ISBN 2-7236-0817-4
  56. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 67.
  57. ↑ Ogot, Bethwell A. General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146
  58. ↑ Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. New York: Methuen & Co Ltd. ISBN 0841904316.
  59. ↑ Shillington, Kevin (2012). History of Africa. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 94. ISBN 9780230308473.
  60. 1 2 Davis, R. Hunt (ed.). Encyclopedia Of African History And Culture, Vol. 2 (E-book ed.). The Learning Source. p. 129. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  61. ↑ (Levtzion and Hopkins 2000, pp. 106–108.)
  62. ↑ Holl, Augustin F.C. (2017-02-14). "The Search for Takrur: Archaeological Excavations and Reconnaissance along the Middle Senegal Valley, written by R.J. McIntosh, S.K. McIntosh and H. Bocoum". Journal of African Archaeology. 15 (2): 260–261. doi:10.1163/21915784-12340015. ISSN 1612-1651.
  63. ↑ McIntosh and McIntosh, “Urban Trade in Ancient West Africa,” pp. 19, 26
  64. ↑ Levtzion and Hopkins 2000, pp. 132–133.
  65. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 27; see also p. 38 for the later importance of the Gorgol valley.
  66. ↑ Boulegue 2013, p. 39.
  67. ↑ Kane 2004, p. 38.
  68. ↑ 'Umar Al-Naqar (1969). "Takrur the History of a Name". The Journal of African History. 10 (3): 365–374. doi:10.1017/s002185370003632x. JSTOR 179671.
  69. ↑ Smidt 2010, p. 998.

Sources

Further reading