Yonok Kingdom

Yonok Nakhon Chaiburi Ratchathani Si Chang Saen
673 BCE–467 CE
A map created by French scholars illustrating the territories of Royaume de Yona Karastra and Royaume de Yonaka Nagābandhu or the Yonok Kingdom.
A map created by French scholars illustrating the territories of Royaume de Yona Karastra and Royaume de Yonaka Nagābandhu or the Yonok Kingdom.
StatusSemi-legendary kingdom
CapitalChiang Saen
GovernmentMonarchy
• 673–572 BCE (first)
Singhanavati [th]
• 355–422 CE
Bhrngaraja
• 379–444 CE
Phrom
• 422–438 CE
Duhkhita
• 459–467 CE (last)
Mahavijaya
History 
• Establishment
673 BCE
• Annexation of Umonkasela
669 BCE
• Revolt of Umongasela
357 CE
• Invasion by Thaton
444 CE
• Kamphaeng Phet established
444 CE
• Fall of Yonok
467 CE
• Formation of Wiang Prueksa
556 CE
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Milakkhu chiefdoms
Souvannakhomkham
Umongasela
Wiang Prueksa

The Yonok Kingdom, also known as Singhanati, was a semi-legendary polity based along the Kok River, centered at Yonok Nakhon Chaiburi Ratchathani Si Chang Saen (Northern Thai: ᩰᨿᨶᩫ᩠ᨠᨶᨣᩬᩁᨩᩱ᩠ᨿᨷᩩᩁᩦᩁᩣ᩠ᨩᨵᩣᨶᩦᩆᩕᩦᨩ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨦᩯᩈ᩠᩵ᨶ; โยนกนครไชยบุรีราชธานีศรีช้างแส่น) in present-day Chiang Saen district in northern Thailand. It can be considered one of the oldest Tai-speaking kingdom in Thailand. The area has been inhabited since the Neolithic, though no direct link has been established between those communities and the later polities. Legend places Austroasiatic-speaking peoples there before Yonok, together with the earlier legendary kingdom of Souvannakhomkham [th].

In the legend Yonok was founded by Singhanavati [th], a son of King Devakala, after a migration into the Chiang Saen area. The new kingdom absorbed the surrounding settlements and extended its influence widely. The account that follows is one of long stability and of sustained royal patronage of Buddhism.

Yonok declined after a revolt by one of its vassals and was destroyed in the 5th century by an earthquake that submerged the capital. Its people dispersed into successor states, among them Wiang Prueksa and Ngoenyang, the second of which led to the Lan Na Kingdom. Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit summarise the same legend as one continuous movement. A Tai chief's son comes from the north, displaces some Lawa and founds Yonok, probably at Chiang Saen; his descendants, harried by people who may have been Mongols, flee south down the Kok River and found Fang, then cross a low watershed into the Ping valley and found Chiang Rai in 1263, moving on towards Chiang Mai later in the century.: 30  Southern offshoots of the Yonok lineage are also associated in later traditions with the early political development of the Chao Phraya Basin.

History

Early settlements

Habitation in the present-day Chiang Saen district goes back to the Neolithic, but nothing yet found links those communities either to the wider prehistoric record or to the later settlements of northern Thailand.: 13  A few prehistoric artefacts have been tentatively associated with Haripuñjaya, a connection that awaits further work.: 14  Before Singhanavati, the legends have the region inhabited by Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, chiefly the Khmu and Lawa peoples.: 29, 41  The chief polity before Yonok is given as the legendary kingdom of Souvannakhomkham [th], on the left bank of the Mekong opposite present-day Chiang Saen. After it sank into the river its ruling line is said to have moved to Umongasela (อุโมงคเสลา), in what is now the Fang area.: 187, 283 

Kingdom establishment

The legend makes Yonok the foundation of Singhanavati [th], younger son of King Devakala (เทวกาล), ruler of the Ho (ฮ่อ) at Rajgir.: 27 : 56  Thai scholars have identified Rajgir with modern Dali in Yunnan,: 15  a region which, during the period in question, lay within the sphere of influence of the Kunming Yi [zh] (lit. 'Kunming Barbarian')—a multi-tribal alliance associated with branches of the Di-Qiang peoples—as well as the ancient state of Tsen (8th–2nd century BCE), and the latter ancient tribal confederation known as Ngai-Lao or Ailao (5th century BCE–77 CE).: 222  In the late 1st millennium, Six Zhao–a confederation of six regional lordships, were formed, five of which are recorded as being composed of Tai speaking Lao or Lao-related tribal groups–and later became Nanzhao.: 223 

His elder brother Bimbisara was made crown prince, and Singhanavati and his twenty-eight siblings were sent out to find territories of their own.: 28 : 56–7  At eighteen he moved south-east with a princess and a reported following of 100,000, crossing the Sarapu River (สาระพู) and several others. The journey took four months and ended at what is now Chiang Saen, where the site is described as holding the ruins of the earlier kingdom of Souvannakhomkham [th]. There he established his domain.: 29–30  From the dates the legend preserves, the foundation has been calculated to 637 BCE.

Under Singhanavati, Yonok campaigned against Umongasela, a successor of Souvannakhomkham [th] to the south-west, and annexed it. The first five years of the reign are given over to consolidation and to bringing the region's existing settlements together.: 32 : 59–60  His authority is described as reaching the Nam Tae River (น้ำแท้) in the east, the Maenam Kong (แม่น้ำคง) in the west, the Nong Sae region (หนองแส) in the north, and Lavarath (ลวรัฐ; lit. 'land of Lawa people'): 33  near the mouth of the Ping River in the south.: 37  Thai scholars have identified these toponyms respectively with the regions of the Black River, the Salween River, Erhai Lake, and the Chao Phraya River basin.: 33 

After that expansion the reign is portrayed as settled, with no conflict recorded within or without.: 33 : 60  The text presents the duties of Singhanavati and several successors as chiefly the promotion and upkeep of Buddhism.: 49  That emphasis is strongest in the reigns of Achutraraj: 63–7  and his son Mangrai Naraj.: 67–71  Royal intermarriage with Lawa communities at Doi Tung is recorded under the third monarch, Achutraraj (พญาอชุตราช).: 36–7 

Revolt of Umongasela

City layout of the ancient Wiang Phang Kham, a moated site measuring approx. 1.5 by 7.0 kilometers, which served as a base for Bhrngaraja and his two sons in their campaign to retake Yonok.

After a long peace and a deep investment in Buddhist institutions, Yonok was shaken in the reign of Bhrngaraja by a revolt of its vassal at Umongasela. Taking advantage of the king's youth, the Khom ruler of Umongasela is said to have marched on Yonok in 357. Bhrngaraja was deposed after two years and exiled to Wiang Si Thuang (เวียงศรีทวง; present-day Wiang Phang Kham, Mae Sai district), a tributary polity of Yonok.: 73–4  In exile he fathered two sons, Duhkhita: 74  and Phrom.: 77  Phrom took Yonok back in 397 and restored his father to the throne. He is credited with pursuing the defeated forces south as far as present-day Kamphaeng Phet. In the former Umongasela territory he founded a frontier town, Chai Prakan, and governed there after the campaigns ended.

Fall of Yonok

The last king was Maha Chaichana (มหาชัยชนะ), in whose reign an earthquake in 467 submerged Yonok beneath Chiang Saen Lake. The survivors under Khun Lung moved east and settled at Wiang Prueksa, and the fourteen remaining chiefdoms formed an assembly to choose their rulers, an elective system that lasted 93 years.: 101  The legend records four earlier earthquakes in the reign of the founder Singhanavati, the most severe in his fifty-seventh year.: 34–5 

A generation earlier, in 444, Chaiyasiri of Chai Prakan, son of Phrom, faced a month-long invasion by the Mon kingdom of Thaton.: 90  Unable to fall back on Yonok, cut off by flooding and outmatched in the field, he led some 100,000 families south along the Yom River to the southern edge of Yonok territory in the Chao Phraya basin and founded a settlement later identified as Kamphaeng Phet. He ruled there until his death in 457, after which the southern line disappears from the record.: 91–3  Two centuries later, Chinese sources—the Tang Huiyao and Cefu Yuangui—mention this area as the location of the Duō Miè Kingdom, situated west of Tou Yuan with a proposed center at Lopburi; the annals give it thirty cities, a large population, independence from its neighbours, and the practice of Buddhism.: 20  By the mid-8th century, the area came to be known as Indaprasthanagara, with Padumasuriyavamsa claimed in later traditions as its first Siamese monarch,: 133 : 38  from whom the lineage of Visnuraja of Phraek Si Racha, a progenitor of the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya monarchs, further asserts descent.: 38 

After the fall of Yonok, records of 638 show highland communities at Doi Tung, formerly a Yonok tributary, gathering under Lao Chakkaraj, who later became the ruler of Wiang Prueksa in 648. He rebuilt Wiang Phang Kham under the name Hiran, which is taken to mark the beginning of the Ngoenyang Kingdom. Ngoenyang held through successive generations and issued at the end of the 13th century in the Lan Na Kingdom.

To the south, in the same period, the hermit Sudeva founded Haripuñjaya in the Ping River valley in 629 and in 662 invited the Mon princess Camadevi from Lavo to rule it, which carried Lavo's influence north.

Singhanati clan and the Siamese

Manit Vallipodom's reading of 1973 equated the Tertiary Era of the legend with the Chula Sakarat era, which placed the later Singhanavati monarchs, Chaiyasiri above all, in the 10th century. Since the legend has Chaiyasiri move to the Chao Phraya River valley, that chronology led earlier Thai scholars to make him the ancestor of Uthong, first king of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, by equating him with the legendary Saenpom or with Phanom Thale Sri of the Phetchaburi dynasty. Each of those figures has a son named Uthong in the traditional accounts: Uthong III of the Suphannaphum line for Saenpom, and Uthong II of the Lavo dynasty in the case of Phanom Thale Sri.: 41  The same equation made Chaiyasiri the founder of the Phrip Phri Kingdom.

Both identifications have since been shown to be wrong. The Ayutthaya Testimonies name Phanom Thale Sri as an elder son of Anuraja, a ruler of an early Siamese polity in the Phraek Si Racha region,: 44  and Uthong of Ayutthaya is securely attested as a son of Baramaraja, a distinct figure from the sons of Saenpom and Phanom Thale Sri. Vallipodom's equation of the Tertiary Era with the Chula Sakarat has itself been challenged, notably by Phiset Chiachanphong, who identifies it with the Shaka era instead. That reading puts Chaiyasiri in the 5th century rather than the 10th.

Rulers

Chronological issues and calendrical systems

King Phrom memorial in Mae Sai district, northernmost of Thailand.
Sculpture depicting King Duhkhita riding a naga elephant.

The narrative preserved in the original text employs multiple calendrical era systems, a feature that has given rise to significant interpretative difficulties among earlier scholars. Most notably, Manit Vallipodom equated the Tertiary Era referenced in the text with the Chula Sakarat era. This identification resulted in the placement of the later Singhanavati monarchs in the 11th century CE, thereby creating a chronological overlap between territories attributed to the Singhanavati lineage and those known to have been under the control of Ngoenyang during the same period. Furthermore, Vallipodom introduced an additional ruler, King Mang Saen (พระองค์มังแสน), in order to bridge perceived gaps in the dynastic sequence between Mang Sing (มังสิง) and Mang Som (มังสม);: 103  however, this figure is not attested in the original text.: 76–7 

In contrast, the Secondary Era is explicitly defined in the text in a manner that closely corresponds to the Buddhist Era. This identification is supported by the statement that its second monarch, Phanthati (พญาพันธติ), died in the same year as the Buddha, after which the year count recommenced at one with the accession of the third monarch, Achutraraj (พญาอชุตราช).: 48  This chronological framework is applied consistently throughout the reigns of Geng, Ping, Kom, and Duhkhita, for whom the regnal years recorded in the text correspond directly to Buddhist Era dates cited in the same passages.: 55, 61, 70, 88 

With regard to the Tertiary Era, Phiset Chiachanphong has proposed that it should instead be identified with the Shaka era. When these two propositions—namely, the equation of the Secondary Era with the Buddhist Era and the identification of the Tertiary Era with the Shaka era—are applied conjointly, the resulting chronology remains internally consistent. In particular, during the reigns of King Fan and King Wan, the text records the abandonment of the earlier era system and the institution of a new one; when these dates are converted into the Common Era, the transition occurs without any chronological discontinuity. However, this presupposition results in an almost century-long temporal gap between Yonok and its successor polity, Wiang Prueksa, a conclusion that contradicts the context preserved in the original text, which suggests a seamless transition.: 97–8 

The apparent discontinuity described above is more plausibly attributable to scribal errors arising from successive copying, as is clearly demonstrated by inconsistencies in the regnal chronology. According to the text, Maha Wan succeeded Duhkhita directly;: 94  however, while the terminal year of Duhkhita’s reign is recorded as 349,: 89  that of Maha Wan is given as 469,: 94  implying an implausible interval of more than a century between two successive reigns. This discrepancy is further contradicted by the narrative itself, which explicitly states that Maha Wan reigned for only 21 years.: 102  The problem becomes even more explicit in the case of Maha Chaichana, who is said to have succeeded Maha Wan directly, yet whose terminal year is recorded as 376.: 98  This date not only precedes the terminal year assigned to Maha Wan but also represents a chronological regression within an otherwise linear sequence of reigns, rendering the regnal chronology internally incoherent.: 94  If the terminal dates of Maha Wan’s reign and that of Chaiyasiri, both recorded as ending in 469 SE,: 94  are accepted as accurate, the apparent chronological hiatus between Yonok and its successor polity, Wiang Prueksa, disappears. This adjustment, however, would require the reigns of the remaining monarchs to be shifted forward by nearly a century relative to the dates preserved in the text.

List of rulers

The following section enumerates the rulers of the Yonok Kingdom and the durations of their reigns.

Color legend
  Prathama Era (โบราณศักราช; lit. 'Ancient Era'), counted from year 1 at the birth of King Singhanavati, known as the Anjana Era [th]
  Dvitīya Era (ทุติยศักราช; lit. 'Secondary Era'), equated with the Buddhist Era (BE)
  Tṛtīya Era (ตติยศักราช; lit. 'Tertiary Era'), equated with the Shaka Era (SE)
NameReign length: 102 Period
RomanizedThaiTotal yearsAgeYears provided
in original text		Interpretation by
Manit Vallipodom
(Buddhist Era)
: 102 		Legendary years in the
Buddhist Era (BE) or
Shaka era (SE) converted
to the Common Era (CE)
Legendary EraBuddhist Era
Singhanavati [th]พญาสิงหนติ101: 102 
or 52: 5 		18–120
or 18–70		18: 30 –119: 36 
or 18–69		431–?673–572 BCE
or 624–572 BCE
Phanthatiพญาพันธติ2942–71?–148: 35  or 98?–1: 35 532–?572–543 BCE
Ashutarajaพญาอชุตราช10020–120?1: 38 –?1–100: 48 561–?543–444 BCE
Ajatashatru: 42 พระยาอชาตศัตรู
Mangrai Narajพญามังรายนราช5246–97100–?: 48 660–?444–392 BCE
Cheungพระองค์เชือง3158–89?–183: 55 712–?392–361 BCE
Chuenพระองค์ชืน1761–78?–200: 55 743–?361–344 BCE
Khamพระองค์คำ1758–75?–216: 55 760–?344–328 BCE
Gengพระองค์เกิง256–58?–218: 55 ?–218: 55 776–?328–326 BCE
Gengthiratพระองค์เกิงธิราช5842–100?–276: 56 778–?326–268 BCE
Chatพระองค์ชาต2071–90?–295: 56 836–?268–249 BCE
Waoพระองค์เวา1962–81?–313: 56 855–?249–231 BCE
Waenพระองค์แวน1763–80?–329: 57 873–?231–215 BCE
Kaewพระองค์แก้ว1558–72?–343: 57 889–?215–201 BCE
Ngeonพระองค์เงิน1556–71?–357: 58 930–?201–187 BCE
Waen IIพระองค์แวนที่ 21652–67?–372: 58 917–?187–172 BCE
Ngamพระองค์งาม3350–83?–450: 59  (✓405?)932–?172–193 BCE
Lueพระองค์ลือ2566–83?–430: 59 965–?193–114 BCE
Royพระองค์รอย1558–72?–446: 59 990–?114–98 BCE
Chengพระองค์เชิง1852–69?–463: 59 1006–?98–81 BCE
Panพระองค์พัน1656–71?–468: 60  (✓479?)1023–?81–65 BCE
Klaoพระองค์เกลา1756–72?–497: 60 1039–?65–47 BCE
Pingพระองค์พิง19?52?–71??–512: 61  (516?)?–500: 61 –?1054–?47–32 BCE
Siพระองค์สี17?54?–70??–528: 62  (533?)1072–?32–16 BCE
Somพระองค์สม14?52?–66??–540: 62  (542?)1088–?16–4 BCE
Suanพระองค์สวน1850–69?–560: 62 1002–?4 BCE–17 CE
Phaengพระองค์แฟง2048–69?–581: 63 1120–?17–38 CE
Puanพระองค์พวน1253–65?–593: 63 1141–?38–50 CE
Fuพระองค์ฟู1236–47?–615: 63  (✓605?)1153–?50–62 CE
Fanพระองค์ฝั้น1730–47?–622: 76 1165–?62–79 CE
The earlier era system ceased to be used in 622 following the death of King Fan, at which point a new era system was instituted.: 76 
Wanพระองค์วัน5017–67?–50: 66 ?–671: 66 1182–?79–128 CE
Mang Singพระองค์มังสิง5035–85?–100: 69 ?–722: 69 1231–?129–178
Mang Saenพระองค์มังแสน2555–80——1281–?—
Mang Somพระองค์มังสม872–79?–134: 69 1306–?178–212
Thipพระองค์ทิพ1751–67?–150: 70 1315–?212–228
Komพระองค์กม5 (✓28?)43?–47??–178: 70 ?–800: 70 1331–?228–256
Chayพระองค์ชาย2030–50?–197: 71–2 1359–?256–275
Chinพระองค์ชิน1532–46?–211: 72 1378–?275–289
Chomพระองค์ชม1929–48?–230: 72 1392–?289–308
Pangพระองค์พัง1628–44?–245: 72 1411–?308–323
Ping IIพระองค์พิงที่ 21526–42245–259: 72 1426–?323–337
Piangพระองค์เพียง1724–42259: 72 –?1440–?337–355
Bhrngarajaพระเจ้าพังคราช218–20?–279: 73 ?–900: 73 1458–?355–357
The text indicates that Yonok was under the control of the Khom of Umongkasela for approximately 19 years.: 104  However, the interval between the first and second
reigns of Bhrngaraja at Yonok exceeds this duration, extending to roughly 40 years.
BhrngarajaRuled at Vien Si Tuang?–280: 75 –?N/a357–397
Bhrngaraja2nd reign at Yonok25?–76 (✓86?)?–344: 88 397–422
Duhkhitaพระเจ้าทุกขิตะ1655–70?–349: 89  (✓360?)?–968: 88 –?1515–?422–438
Maha Wanมหาวรรณ2146–67?–469: 94  (✓381?)1530–?438–459
Maha Chaichanaมหาชัยชนะ842–49?–376: 98  (✓389?)1550–1558459–467
Reign of Maha Chaichana was marked by the fall of Yonok.
Phromพระเจ้าพรหมมหาราช59: 89 ?–77: 89 ?–456: 89  (✓360)Chai Prakan: 379–438
Chaiyasiriพระเจ้าชัยศิริ21: 94 48: 89 –67: 94 ?–366: 91 –469: 94 
(✓379)		Chai Prakan: 438–444
Kamphaeng Phet: 444–457

Notes

  1. ↑ A detailed presentation of the calculations is provided in the table of rulers below.
  2. ↑ As says in the Ayutthaya Testimonies that Indaprasthanagara was in the Phraek Si Racha historical region.: 5–6 
  3. 1 2 King Mang Saen does not appear in the original text,: 76–7  and is instead introduced in the research reconstruction proposed by Manit Vallipodom.: 103 
  4. ↑ According to the original text, Phrom was born to Bhrngaraja in 283: 77  and died at the age of 77.: 89  However, the same source records his year of death as 456,: 89  which would imply an implausible lifespan of 173 years. If the legendary account stating that he died at the age of seventy-seven is accepted, his year of death should instead be calculated as 360 rather than 456.
  5. ↑ Given that the corrected year of death of his father is 360, which also marks the year in which Chaiyasiri succeeded his father at the age of 48, and considering that Chaiyasiri is said to have died at the age of 67, his year of death should be calculated as 379 rather than 469, as stated in the original text.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Wiang Nong Lom Cultural Heritage" (PDF). Fine Arts Department of Thailand. 2023. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  2. ↑ "เมืองโยนก นครในตำนานล้านนา" (in Thai). Fine Arts Department of Thailand. 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  3. ↑ ""รอยเลื่อนแม่จัน" กับ "โยนกเชียงแสน" ตำนานที่อาจมีอายุมากกว่า 1,800 ปี" (in Thai). Manager Daily. 24 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  4. ↑ Wood, Spencer H.; Wood, Layle R.; Ziegler, Alan D. (2 November 2015). "Natural degradation of earthworks, trenches, walls and moats, Northern Thailand". Journal of Field Archaeology. 40 (6): 675–694. doi:10.1080/00934690.2015.1103645. ISSN 0093-4690. S2CID 32414373. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  5. ↑ Chris Baker; Pasuk Phongpaichit (4 July 2017). "Before Ayutthaya". A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–42. doi:10.1017/9781108120197.002. ISBN 978-1-108-12019-7. Archived from the original on 11 March 2026. Retrieved 29 August 2026.
  6. 1 2 3 Kanjana Chansingh (25 February 2020). "พระเจ้าศิริไชยเชียงแสน (บุรุษแสนปม) สร้างเมืองเทพนคร" [King Sirichai Chiang Saen (Burus Saen Pom) built the city of Thep Nakhon.]. Kamphaengphet Rajabhat University [th] (in Thai). Archived from the original on 17 November 2025. Retrieved 11 February 2026.
  7. 1 2 3 Thanothai Sukthit (26 September 2020). "พงศาวดารกรุงศรีอยุธยา ส่งถวายพระเจ้าหลุยส์ที่ 14 อยู่ที่ไหน?". Art & Culture (in Thai). Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Phiset Chiachanphong (28 January 2022). "พระเจ้าพรหมมหาราช ในตำนานล้านนา นัยสำคัญของกษัตริย์สืบสายทางธรรม VS สายเลือด" [King Phrom Maharat in Lanna legend: The significance of royal lineage through Dharma versus bloodline.]. www.silpa-mag.com (in Thai). Retrieved 23 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 Manit Vallipodom. "ตำนานสิงหนวติกุมารฉบับสอบค้น" [The Legend of Singhanawatikumara: Researched Edition] (PDF) (in Thai). Office of the Prime Minister. Archived from the original on 20 February 2025. Retrieved 3 February 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  10. ↑ Chayphet Sayarath (23 September 2014). "Dispositifs spatiaux et évolution des villes lao, persistence des pratiques et permanence des formes: la place du centre historique et de l'habitat ancien dans la recomposition de la ville contemporaine" (PDF) (in French). Paris-Est Sup University Group. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
  11. ↑ โรม บุนนาค (9 May 2022). "อาณาจักรโบราณที่สาบสูญก่อนมีประเทศไทย! "สุวรรณโคมคำ" กำเนิดจากแม่ลูกถูกลอยแพ!!" (in Thai). Manager Daily.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ประชุมพงศาวดารภาคที่ ๖๑ [Collection of Historical Chronicles, Part 61] (PDF) (in Thai). Fine Arts Department. Archived from the original on 3 June 2025. Retrieved 9 February 2026.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  13. ↑ Thampanya, Nikon; Phanomprai, Prapaphon (2014). "การสืบค้นและจัดการมรดกทางประวัติศาสตร์เพื่อการพัฒนาและอนุรักษ์แหล่งท่องเที่ยวชุมชนเวียงหนองหล่ม อําเภอแม่จัน จังหวัดเชียงราย" [Exploration and Management of Historical Heritage for Tourism Development and Conservation of Wiang Nong Lom, Mae Chan District, Chiang Rai Province] (PDF). Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Chiang Rai [th] (in Thai). Archived from the original on 12 February 2026. Retrieved 12 February 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  14. ↑ 《云南各民族历史大事概略》编写组古代史组 (1975). "云南历史上几个族名、地名的由来和演变" [The origin and the evolvement of some ethnic names and the place names in the history of Yunnan]. 思想战线 (Thinking) (in Chinese) (6): 83–86.
  15. 1 2 Grant Evans (2014). "The Ai-Lao and Nan Chao/Tali Kingdom: A Re-orientation". Journal of the Siam Society. 102: 221–56.
  16. 1 2 สงบ สุริยินทร์ (30 December 2022). "เมืองลพบุรีเป็นของไทยเมื่อใด?". www.silpa-mag.com (in Thai). Retrieved 25 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  17. ↑ โรม บุนนาค (7 April 2023). "๒ มหาราชของคนไทยก่อนเกิดประเทศไทย! ๒ เมืองหลวงเป็นอำเภอและจังหวัดในปัจจุบัน!!" (in Thai). Manager Daily. Retrieved 19 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  18. ↑ "ประวัติของจังหวัดเชียงราย" [History of Chiang Rai Province] (in Thai). Chiang Rai Provincial Administrative Organization. 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  19. ↑ "ประวัติเมืองเก่าไชยปราการ" (in Thai). Chai Prakan Municipality. Retrieved 23 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  20. ↑ The chronicle of Yonok-nagabundhu
  21. ↑ 钦定古今图书集成，方舆汇编，边裔典，第102卷 [The Complete Works of Ancient and Modern Books, Collection of Geographical Maps, Border and Ethnic Groups, Volume 102] (in Chinese) Text: 按杜氏《通典》，名蔑国，大唐贞观中通焉。在南海边界， 周回可一月行。Retrieved 16 May 2025.
  22. ↑ "钦定四库全书: 册府元龟卷九百五十七宋王钦若等撰". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese). Retrieved 14 May 2025.
  23. 1 2 3 Fine Arts Department, ed. (1968) [First published in Thai in 1912.]. Khamhaikan Chao Krung Kao Khamhaikan Khun Luang Ha Wat Lae Phra Ratcha Pongsawadarn Krung Kao Chabab Luang Luang Prasoet Aksorn คำให้การชาวกรุงเก่า คำให้การขุนหลวงหาวัด และ พระราชพงศาวดารกรุงเก่าฉบับหลวงประเสริฐอักษรนิติ์ [Testimony of the King Who Entered a Wat, Testimony of the Inhabitants of the Old Capital, and Royal Chronicle of the Old Capital: Luang Prasoet Aksorn Version] (PDF) (in Thai). Bangkok: Rung Rueang Tham. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  24. ↑ Michael Smithies; Dhiravat na Pombejra (2022). "Instructions Given to the Siamese Envoys Sent to Portugal, 1684" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 90 (Part 1 & 2). Archived from the original on 23 August 2025. Retrieved 10 February 2026.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  25. ↑ Thamrungrueang, Rungrot; Phakdeekham, Santi (18 November 2016). "เกร็ดประวัติศาสตร์และการเมือง ว่าด้วยปรางค์ขอม ปราสาทเขมร และศิลปะลพบุรี" [Historical and political facts about Khom prangs, Khom castles, and Lopburi art] (PDF). Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (in Thai). Archived from the original on 24 May 2024. Retrieved 26 November 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  26. ↑ The chronicle of Hiranyanagorn-ngernyang
  27. ↑ The chronicle of Chiang Mai
  28. ↑ Chatchai Sukrakarn (October 2005). "พระเจ้าศรีธรรมาโศกราช" [Sri Thammasokaraj] (PDF) (in Thai). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2024. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
  29. ↑ Sujit Wongthes (21 April 2023). "พงศาวดารอโยธยาศรีรามเทพนคร ฉบับ มานิต วัลลิโภดม : อโยธยา เก่าแก่กว่าสุโขทัย ต้นกำเนิดอยุธยา ต้นแบบรัตนโกสินทร์" [The Chronicles of Ayutthaya Sri Ramathep Nakhon, Manit Vallipodom Edition: Ayutthaya is older than Sukhothai, the origin of Ayutthaya, the prototype of Rattanakosin.]. www.silpa-mag.com (in Thai). Retrieved 25 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  30. ↑ Jaruwan Nanthapong (1 October 2006). "การพัฒนาขบวนการสหกรณ์ในพื้นที่ 36 จังหวัด: จังหวัดเชียงราย" [Developing the Cooperative Movement in 36 Provinces: Chiang Rai Province] (PDF). Thailand Research Fund [de] (in Thai). Archived from the original on 16 June 2025. Retrieved 11 February 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)