Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico
Organized and Unincorporated U.S. territory
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Free Associated State of Puerto Rico
Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (Spanish)
Flag of Puerto Rico
Flag
Official seal of Puerto Rico
Coat of arms
Official logo of Puerto Rico
Seal of Puerto Rico
Nickname(s): 
"La Isla del Encanto" (Spanish)
('The Island of Enchantment')
Motto: 
"Joannes est nomen ejus" (Latin)
('John is his name')
Anthem: "La Borinqueña" (Spanish)
("The Song of Borinquen")
Location of Puerto Rico
Location of Puerto Rico
Sovereign state United States
Preceding stateSpanish Empire
Establishment
Before annexationCapitanía General de Puerto Rico
Cession from Spain10 December 1898
Current constitution25 July 1952
Capital and largest municipalitySan Juan
18°24′23″N 66°03′50″W / 18.40639°N 66.06389°W / 18.40639; -66.06389
Largest metro areaSan Juan
Official languages
Common languages94.3% Spanish
5.5% English
0.2% other
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2020)
Religion
(2020)
  • 88.9% Christian
  • 10% unaffiliated
  • <1% other
Demonym(s)
GovernmentDevolved presidential constitutional dependency
• President
Donald Trump (R)
• Governor
Jenniffer González (PNP)(R)
Rosachely Rivera (PNP)(D)
LegislatureLegislative Assembly
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
House of Representatives
United States Congress
• Resident Commissioner
Pablo Hernández (PPD)(D)
Area
• Total
13,792 km2 (5,325 sq mi)
Establishment
• Land
8,868 km2 (3,424 sq mi)(186th)
• Water
4,924 km2 (1,901 sq mi)
• Water (%)
35.6
Dimensions
• Length
177 km (110 mi)
• Width
65 km (40 mi)
Highest elevation
(Cerro de Punta)
1,338 m (4,390 ft)
Lowest elevation
(Atlantic Ocean)
0 m (0 ft)
Population
• 2025 estimate
Neutral decrease 3,184,195 (135th)
• 2020 census
Neutral decrease 3,285,874
• Density
358.9/km2 (929.5/sq mi) (37th)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $158.019 billion (92nd)
• Per capita
Increase $49,590 (39th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $120.970 billion (64th)
• Per capita
Increase $37,930 (27th)
Gini (2024)58
high
HDI (2022)Increase 0.868
very high · 47th
CurrencyU.S. dollar ($) (USD)
Time zoneUTC−04:00 (AST)
Date format
  • dd/mm/yyyy
  • mm/dd/yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+1
USPS abbreviation
PR
ISO 3166 code
Internet TLD.pr
Websitepr.gov
Christopher Columbus was the first European to visit Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, or the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico), is a U.S. territory in the Caribbean Sea. This means that it belongs to the United States and citizens of Puerto Rico are citizens of the United States as well. Puerto Rico is not an independent country, but like all populated U.S. territories, it has more autonomy than U.S. states. There has been a movement for independence for almost two centuries. There have been protests, votes, and armed attacks for independence.

Puerto Rico has about 3.3 million (3,300,000) people. Its political system is based on a republican system. It has two official languages: Spanish and English, but Spanish is almost only used by the government, the legislature and the judiciary (courts). Spanish is also the main language of the school curriculum, though English is taught in all schools as a second language (from grade 1 to 12). Puerto Rico is one of two U.S. territories where the metric system is officially used and is dominant. (The other is Guam, which was also a Spanish colony. The metric system was introduced to both territories, before they became U.S. territories.) Spanish is spoken by 94.7% of the population and English is spoken by 5.3% of the population as a mother language. The currency used is the United States dollar.

The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico includes the largest, main island and a number of smaller islands, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra. Of those three smaller islands, only Culebra and Vieques are populated all year. Mona is unpopulated, but employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources sometimes visit the island to inspect it and its wildlife. People can visit the island for hiking and camping by getting the permission needed. San Juan, on the northern side of the main island, is the island's largest city and the capital of the territory.

Puerto Rico means "rich port" in Spanish.

On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico filed for bankruptcy after a massive debt and weak economy. It is the largest bankruptcy case in American history.

Etymology

Puerto Rico means "rich port" in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often refer to the island as Borinquen. This name comes from Borikén, which is the Indigenous Taíno name for the island. It is commonly said to mean "Land of the Valiant Lord." The terms boricua, borinqueño, and borincano are used to describe people of Puerto Rican heritage. These terms come from the names Borikén and Borinquen.

Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista to honor Saint John the Baptist. He called the capital city Ciudad de Puerto Rico, which means "Rich Port City." Over time, traders and visitors began to refer to the whole island as Puerto Rico. Meanwhile, San Juan became the name for the main trading port and the capital city.

The island's name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises (also Porto in Italian, French, and Portuguese). The name was changed back to Puerto Rico in 1931 by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila.

Puerto Rico is officially known as Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico in Spanish, which means "Free Associated State of Puerto Rico," and as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in English. Luis Muñoz Marín, who designed this system, proposed the Spanish name. A constitutional assembly adopted it on July 25, 1952. Some people believe the term "Commonwealth" is misleading and suggests that it hides uncomfortable truths. Puerto Rico is still a territory of the United States. It has considerable self-government but is still subject to U.S. law in matters like foreign affairs and defense. Therefore, it is not recognized as a fully independent associated state by either international law or U.S. law.

Status

Puerto Rico is one of the unincorporated territories of the USA. These are organized, self-governing territories with locally elected governors and legislatures. Because it is not a state, its citizens can not vote in U.S. national elections unless they have an address in one of the 50 US states. Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens and can move to or from the 50 states. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner to the U.S. House of Representatives. Puerto Rico, however, does not elect senators to the United States Senate, where only U.S. states are represented. In 2022, the United States Supreme Court held that the territorial clause of the U.S. constitution allows wide congressional latitude in mandating "reasonable" tax and benefit schemes in Puerto Rico and the other territories that are different from the states, but the Court did not address the incorporated/unincorporated distinction. As a result, the status quo remains, so the U.S. government still defines the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico as a U.S. unincorporated territory.

History

The history of Puerto Rico began when the Ortoiroid people started living in the island between 3000 and 2000 BC. Other tribes, for example the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, lived in the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. When Christopher Columbus arrived at the island in 1492 and named it San Juan Bautista, the people living there were the Taínos.

Since it is in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, Puerto Rico formed an important part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest, and colonization of the New World. The Spanish spread race-based slavery across the island. In the 19th century, slave revolts and the abolitionist movement brought an end to legal slavery.

The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European countries for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. In 1898, during the Spanish-American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and became a possession of the United States. In 1901, the U.S. Congress, influenced by the U.S. Supreme Court, ruled that for purposes of the Uniformity Clause of the Constitution, Puerto Rico belonged to the United States, but was not considered part of the United States.

During the 20th century, Puerto Rico's political status changed from time to time. The Foraker Act of 1900 created a civil government to replace the military government made after the Spanish–American war, and the Jones Act of 1917 gave Puerto Rican people United States citizenship. Afterwards. In 1932, the name Porto Rico was changed to Puerto Rico. in 1952, the drafting of Puerto Rico's own Constitution and democratic elections were established.

In 1936, the U.S. Senator Millard Tydings presented a legislative proposal to grant independence to Puerto Rico, but many people believed that it had unfavorable economic conditions.

A 1948 law called the Ley de la Mordaza (Gag Law) made it illegal to speak in favor of Puerto Rican independence or even display the Puerto Rican flag. This law, implemented by the U.S. colonial government, was used to persecute and imprison Puerto Rican independence leaders, instilling fear in the population, and discouraging any form of nationalist and patriotic expression.

The political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, is still not completely defined. Many people want to resolve this status, while others want the status to remain the same. Of the people who want to change the status, some want Puerto Rico to become a new U.S. state, while others want Puerto Rico to become a fully independent country.

The Official Languages Act of 1902 declared English and Spanish co-official languages in all government departments, courts, and island administrations. Then, in 1993, Puerto Rico adopted both languages as official languages of the Puerto Rican government.

In May 2022, Members of Congress sponsoring competing bills on how to resolve Puerto Rico’s territorial status and its relationship to the U.S. have come together to introduce new legislation combining both. The proposed legislation combines elements of the pro-statehood bill introduced by Rep. Darren Soto, D-Fla., and Rep. Jenniffer Gonzalez, Puerto Rico’s nonvoting member of Congress and a Republican, alongside the Puerto Rico Self-Determination Act from Reps. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Nydia Velázquez, both New York Democrats. The draft legislation says that a plebiscite to resolve Puerto Rico’s political status shall be held on November 5, 2023.

On December 15, 2022, the U.S. House of Representatives voted in favor of the Puerto Rico Status Act. The act sought to resolve Puerto Rico's status and its relationship to the United States through a binding plebiscite.

In March 2025, members of Congress pressured President Donald Trump to consider making Puerto Rico an independent nation. A draft executive order suggests making Puerto Rico an independent nation.

In June 2025, the United Nations adopted a resolution in favor of self-determination and independence for the state of Puerto Rico.

Geography

Puerto Rico is an archipelago, with a main island where most of the population lives, two smaller islands (Vieques and Culebra) with residents, and many other smaller islands. The main island has a mountain range in the center, which covers most of the island. The highest point is Cerro de Punta at 1,338 meters (4,390 feet) above sea level.

Political parties

Puerto Rico has three main political parties: the Puerto Rican Independence Party, which favors Puerto Rico becoming an independent nation; the The Not So "New" neither "Progressive" Party, which supports Puerto Rico's transition to becoming a state of the United States; and the Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico), which supports Colonialism with the word "sovereignty" but in paper. (also known as: "to remain as a territory or a Territorial Autonomy"). The total of political parties that Puerto Rico currently have is 5.

• Pro-Statehood Party: New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico) (PNP)

• Pro-ELA Party: Popular Democratic Party (PPD)

• Pro-Independence Party: Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP)

And the other 2 parties with some various and status support: • Movimiento Victoria Ciudadana (MVC)

• Proyecto Dignidad (PD)

The issue of the political status of the island (meaning whether it's a country, a U.S. state, or a colony) is an issue of debate amongst the Puerto Rican people. In the past there have been many attempts to clearly define the island's political status by means of voting. Most of the time the majority of the people have chosen to remain a colony. However, in the last "status voting" the colonial option appeared to have lost well over 90% of its support, while the U.S. state option has only gained strength in the last few decades. The Puerto Rican Independence party, on the other hand, has mainly lost a great deal of support within the last six decades (60 years).

Demographics

Puerto Rico is said to comprise a White majority, an extinct Amerindian population, persons of mixed ancestry, Africans and a small Asian minority. Recent genetic research, however, contradicts that information. According to the 2010 US Census, 99% of the population consider themselves of Puerto Rican descent (regardless of race or skin color), making Puerto Rico one of the most culturally unified societies in the world.

The population of Puerto Rico is nearly about 4 million people. The ethnic composition of the population is:

Culture

Language

Spanish and English are the official languages of Puerto Rico, with Spanish remaining the primary language of the island's government and public affairs. In schools, the official language of instruction is Spanish, but English is a required course in the local education system. Only a quarter of Puerto Ricans living in Puerto Rico are fluent in English. Donald Trump's executive order recognizing English as the official language of the American territory, has called into question the provision of services to non-English speakers in federal offices, such as Social Security, in the United States and in Puerto Rico, where Spanish is the official language, and common to the Associated Territory of the state Puerto Rico.

Literature

Puerto Rico has a strong literary tradition. The most important playwrights are René Marqués (author of "The Oxcart") and Lin Manuel Miranda (creator of the Broadway musical "Hamilton"). The most famous poets are Julia de Burgos ("Yo fui mi ruta") and Giannina Braschi (author the poetry epic "Empires of Dreams"). Celebrated Puerto Rican novelists include Rosario Ferre (Eccentric Neighborhoods), Giannina Braschi (United States of Banana), and Esmeralda Santiago (When I Was Puerto Rican). Puerto Rican poets who live in New York are called Nuyorican poets.

Art

José Campeche (1751-1809) is the first known Puerto Rican painter. He painted in the best rococo style. Franciso Oller painted Puerto Rican landscapes and still life paintings the 19th Century. In the 20th century Franciso Rodón who paints portraits of celebrities. In the 21st century, Allora and Calzadilla are conceptual artists in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Music

Puerto Rico music is often called Latin music. There are many popular styles of Puerto Rican dance music, including Salsa, Bomba, Plena, and Reggaeton. Historically, one of the most popular modern bands was Calle 13.

More recently, musicians like Bad Bunny have achieve global recognition.

Other world famous Puerto Rican singers include Jennifer Lopez, Hector Lavoe, Tito Puentes, and Marc Anthony. Ricky Martin won the 1999 Grammy Award for "Best Latin Pop Performance" for Living La Vida Loca.

Philosophy

Puerto Rican philosophy deals with Puerto Rican independence, education, racism, and liberty for all. The first major Puerto Rican philosopher was Eugenio María de Hostos. He was born in the 19th Century in Puerto Rico. He believed that Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Cuba should unite to be free from Colonial powers. Francisco José Ramos was born in the 20th century. His philosophy deals with Ancient Greeks, American imperialism, and Buddhism. Giannina Braschi is a contemporary political philosopher. She writes about freedom, immigration, revolution, and justice. Braschi was inspired by a major Mexican woman philosopher Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz. Puerto Rican philosophers are sometimes called Latin American philosophers.

Notes

  1. ↑ Despite being under the sovereignty of the United States since 1898, Puerto Rico has not been fully incorporated into the country for constitutional purposes. See the page for the Insular Cases for more information.
  2. ↑ Puerto Rican or Puertorriqueño -a (Spanish) is the official demonym for Puerto Ricans, while boricua is a widely used colloquial demonym for Puerto Ricans. Other colloquial names are borinqueño -a, borincano -a, and puertorro -a. The name boricua is gender-neutral, whereas the names puertorriqueño, borinqueño, borincano, and puertorro are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a».
  3. ↑
  4. ↑ The area of the main island of Puerto Rico is 5,325 m² (13,792 km²). The land and internal coastal water area is 3,513 m² (9,100 km²), with land covering 3,424 m² (8,868 km²) and internal costal waters 89 m² (232 km²). Its territorial waters stretch for 1,812 m² (4,692 km²). The island of Vieques has a total land area of 51 m² (132 km²), See Government of Puerto Rico and Insular Cases for more information.
  5. ↑ Puerto Rico, the main island of the archipelago of the same name, is 178 kilometers long (110 statute miles; 96 nautical miles) and 65 kilometers wide (40 statute miles; 35 nautical miles). Boricuas often refer to Puerto Rico as 100x35 (Spanish: 100por35), a direct reference to the island's size in nautical miles.
  6. ↑ Proyecto Salón Hogar (in Spanish) "Los españoles le cambiaron el nombre de Borikén a San Juan Bautista y a la capital le llamaron Ciudad de Puerto Rico. Con los años, Ciudad de Puerto Rico pasó a ser San Juan, y San Juan Bautista pasó a ser Puerto Rico."
  7. ↑ In 1932, the U.S. Congress officially back-corrected the former Anglicization of Porto Rico into the Spanish name Puerto Rico. It had been using the former spelling in its legislative and judicial records since it acquired the archipelago. Patricia Gherovici states that both Porto Rico and Puerto Rico were used interchangeably in the news media and documentation before, during, and after the U.S. conquest of the island in 1898. The Porto spelling, for instance, was used in the Treaty of Paris, but Puerto was used by The New York Times that same year. Nancy Morris clarifies that "a curious oversight in the drafting of the Foraker Act caused the name of the island to be officially misspelled". However, Gervasio Luis Garcia traces the Anglicized spelling to a National Geographic article from 1899, after which the spelling was kept by many agencies and entities because of the ethnic and linguistic pride of the English-speaking citizens of the American mainland.

References

  1. ↑ "U.S Territories - Developments in the Law". Harvard Law Review. 10 April 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2024.[permanent dead link]
  2. ↑ "Ley de los Idiomas Oficiales del Gobierno de Puerto Rico" (PDF). Biblioteca Virtual de OGP "Miguel J. Rodríguez Fernández" Viejo San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved October 8, 2024.
  3. ↑ "P. Rico Senate declares Spanish over English as first official language". Agencia EFE. San Juan, Puerto Rico. September 4, 2015. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2016.
  4. ↑ "Puerto Rico 2015-2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". US Census. Department of Commerce. 2019. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
  5. ↑ "P. Rico Senate declares Spanish over English as first official language". Agencia EFE. San Juan, Puerto Rico. 4 September 2015. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
  6. ↑ "2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country: Puerto Rico". United States Census. Archived from the original on October 21, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
  7. ↑ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2020". Pew Research Center. 2025-06-09. Retrieved 2026-08-31.
  8. ↑ "puertorriqueño". Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  9. ↑ "puertorro". Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española: Diccionario de Americanismos (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  10. ↑ "State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
  11. ↑ {{Cite web |url= https://data.census.gov/profile/Vieques_Municipio,_Puerto_Rico?{{Infobox political division | name = Puerto Rico | type = Unincorporated and organized territory | official_name = Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
    Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico  (Spanish) | image_flag = Flag of Puerto Rico.svg | flag_size = 125px | flag_link = Flag of Puerto Rico | image_seal = Escudo Puerto Rico.png | seal_size = 85px | seal_type = Coat of arms | seal_link = Coat of arms of Puerto Rico | nickname = "La Isla del Encanto" (Spanish)
    ('The Island of Enchantment') | nickname_link = List of U.S. state and territory nicknames | motto_link = List of U.S. state and territory mottos | motto = Joannes est nomen ejus  (Latin)
    ('John is his name') | anthem_link = List of U.S. state songs | anthem = "La Borinqueña" (Spanish)
    ('The Song of Borinquen')
    | image_map =
    Americas map of Puerto Rico
    Americas map of Puerto Rico
    Caribbean map of Puerto Rico
    Municipal map of Puerto Rico
    | subdivision_type = Sovereign state | subdivision_name = United States{{efn|Neither a sovereign state nor a U.S. state, Puerto Rico is a self-governing unincorporated U.S. territory subject to the constitutional and territorial sovereignty of the U.S. federal government. Specifically, the U.S. Congress has plenary authority or unlimited power over the archipelago and island through the Territorial Clause in Article IV of the U.S. Constitution, which applies selectively in Puerto Rico, as it is not incorporated into the United States. As a such, it operates as an administrative division and dependent territory belonging to, but not an integral part of, the United States, namely the 50 states and the federal District of Columbia.<ref>"U.S. Territories - Developments in the Law". Harvard Law Review. April 10, 2017. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
  12. ↑ "Geografía de Puerto Rico". Sistemas de Información Geográfica (in Spanish). Retrieved February 24, 2024.
  13. ↑ "United States Census Quick Facts Puerto Rico". Retrieved January 9, 2025.
  14. ↑ "Table 2. Resident Population for the 50 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 2020 Census" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 26, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 26, 2021. Retrieved April 26, 2021.
  15. 1 2 3 4 "IMF DataMapper - Puerto Rico". International Monetary Fund. November 3, 2024. Retrieved November 3, 2024.
  16. ↑ "Socioeconomic Indicators - Puerto Rico | Market Forecast". August 2024. Retrieved September 23, 2024.
  17. ↑ Fuentes-Ramírez, Ricardo; Ouslan-Cerritos, Alejandro (2024). "Puerto Rico's Human Development Index and Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index (2013 – 2022)". Ceteris Paribus: Journal of Socioeconomic Research. 12: 1–11. doi:10.5281/zenodo.14187921.
  18. ↑ More exactly, it is an unincorporated territory.
  19. ↑ "Audio of Lolita Lebron at 1954 attack". Freedom Archives. Archived from the original on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  20. ↑ "El Grito de Lares". New York Latino Journal. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21.
  21. ↑ Qvortrup, Matt (2015-07-10). "Voting on Independence and National Issues: A Historical and Comparative Study of Referendums on Self-Determination and Secession". Revue Française de Civilisation Britannique. French Journal of British Studies. 20 (XX-2). doi:10.4000/rfcb.366. ISSN 0248-9015. Archived from the original on 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  22. ↑ "US leaves the world puzzled by dragging its feet on metric system". The Nation Thailand. 2015-12-26. Archived from the original on 2023-01-28. Retrieved 2023-01-28.
  23. 1 2 "Puerto Rico files for biggest ever U.S. local government bankruptcy". Reuters. May 3, 2017. Archived from the original on September 10, 2017. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
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  25. ↑ "Historia de Puerto Rico". Proyectosalonhogar.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
  26. ↑ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898". The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  27. ↑ "Crafting an Identity". History, Art & Archives. Office of the Historian and the Clerk of the House's Office of Art and Archives. Archived from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  28. ↑ Pedro A. Malavet (2004). America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico. NYU Press. pp. 43, 181 note 76. ISBN 978-0-8147-5680-5. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
  29. ↑ To change the name of the island of Porto Rico to Puerto Rico, S.J. Res 36, 72nd Congress, enacted 1932. (47 Stat. 158)
  30. ↑ Patricia Gherovici (2003). The Puerto Rican syndrome. Other Press, LLC. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-1-892746-75-7. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
  31. ↑ Historian, Office of the (1 January 2013). Hispanic Americans in Congress, 1822–2012. Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-16-092068-4. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  32. ↑ Secretary's, Puerto Rico; Office, Puerto Rico Secretary's (1 January 1903). Register of Porto Rico. Office of the Secretary.
  33. ↑ Van Deusen, Richard James; Van Deusen, Elizabeth Kneipple (1931). Porto Rico: A Caribbean Isle. Henry Holt. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
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  35. ↑ US General Accounting Office, U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution Archived 2020-02-29 at the Wayback Machine, November 1997, pp. 8, 14, 27, viewed September 3, 2015.
  36. ↑ "Puerto Rico". govtrack.us. 5 March 2025. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
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  40. ↑ Rouse, Irving. The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus ISBN 0-300-05696-6.
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  43. ↑ "SENATE BILL GIVES FULL INDEPENDENCE TO PUERTO RICANS; Tydings, Introducing Measure, Declares It Has Support of the Administration. ASKS ISLAND POLL IN 1937 Complete Liberty Would Come After Four Years Under Commonwealth Status. MUNOZ MARIN PROTESTS Liberal Leader Says the Plan Is Unsatisfactory -- Wants More Economic Guarantees. FREE PUERTO RICO SOUGHT IN SENATE". nytimes.com. 1936-04-24. Retrieved 2025-05-14.
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  47. ↑ "Trump pressured to make Puerto Rico independent to save America $617 billion". dailymail.co.uk. 2025-03-07. Retrieved 2025-05-04.
  48. ↑ "Puerto Rico en la ONU: aprobada una nueva resolución en favor de su libre determinación e independencia". elnuevodia.com (in Spanish). 2025-06-16. Retrieved 2025-06-17.
  49. ↑ "Puerto Ricans worry over new Trump order designating English as U.S. official language". NBC News. 28 February 2025. Retrieved 2 March 2025.
  50. ↑ "A promover la "asimilación": gobierno de Donald Trump busca reglamentar the decree that declared the English official language". El Nuevo Dia. 14 July 2025. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
  51. ↑ Foundation, Poetry (2020-09-17). "Julia de Burgos". Poetry Foundation. Archived from the original on 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  52. ↑ Poets, Academy of American. "About Giannina Braschi | Academy of American Poets". poets.org. Archived from the original on 2020-09-28. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  53. ↑ Valens, K. (2012-11-01). "The Love of Neighbors: Rosario Ferre's Eccentric Neighborhoods / Vencindarios excentricos". Contemporary Women's Writing. 6 (3): 251–266. doi:10.1093/cww/vps026. ISSN 1754-1484.
  54. ↑ "Puerto Rican Counterpoint I". The Right to Look: 117–122. 2011. doi:10.1215/9780822393726-005. ISBN 978-0-8223-4895-5.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  55. ↑ jmedranoartcollection (2014-03-10). "The Legend of Francisco Rodon". Puerto Rico Art Review & Art Collection. Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  56. ↑ "Allora & Calzadilla | Artists | Lisson Gallery". www.lissongallery.com. Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  57. 1 2 "Puerto Rico's Culture: Music". welcome.topuertorico.org. Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  58. ↑ ivetteromero (2013-01-15). "The 12 Most Influential Puerto Ricans". Repeating Islands. Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2020-09-17.
  59. ↑ "Eugenio María de Hostos | Puerto Rican author". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2021-08-01. Retrieved 2021-08-01.
  60. ↑ Ramos, Francisco José (2020-10-27). The Holy Trinity. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 156–165. doi:10.2307/j.ctv193rr38.17. ISBN 978-0-8229-8759-8. S2CID 241105437.
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