Syria

Before 20th century

Syria has a very long history. It was a land of Phoenicians, which then became part of the Achaemenid Empire, Roman Empire, and then the Eastern Roman Empire. In those days people in Syria spoke the Syriac language and used the Syriac alphabet, while the Syrian city Antioch was one of the important cities in Christendom. The Rashidun Caliphate took over Syria from the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th century. Most of the indigenous population converted to Islam and adopted the Arabic language. The region then became an important province of the subsequent Muslim empires under the name of Bilād ash-Shām.

Independent Syria

When World War I started, the Ottoman Empire ruled Syria and many other places. When it ended, France controlled Lebanon and Syria. Britain had Iraq, Jordan and Palestine. They drew a border between Iraq and Syria in 1920. France controlled Syria until 1946 when Syria became its own country.

Syria was part of the United Arab Republic with Egypt between 1958 and 1961. Syria fought some wars with Israel. Its former territory Golan Heights has been governed by Israel since 1967. Meanwhile, the Ba'athist party seized power with a coup in 1963 to establish a junta. In 1970, Hafiz al-Assad, the father of Bashar al-Assad, took over with another coup and turned the Ba'athist Syrian state into a dynastic totalitarian state, featured by systematic oppression and widespread human rights abuses, which was passed on to Bashar when Hafiz passed away in 2000.

Most Syrians believe in Islam, while an ethnoreligious Christian minority, called the Syriac Christians, exists. In 2011, anti-regime protests were brutally suppressed by President Bashar al-Assad, sparking off a civil war against Assad. Assad went on to commit countless atrocities against Syrians, including massacres, starving sieges and chemical attacks, which killed over 400,000 Syrians. Amid the war, the Kurds took over a sizeable part of northern Syria, namely the Rojava. In 2016, Assad regained most of Syria with help from military forces from Russia and Iran. A myriad of factors, including the COVID-19 pandemic and pro-Russian Western leftist opposition to NATO intervention, had made the civil war a frozen conflict for several years until December 2024. In December 2024, regrouped rebel forces launched large-scale multi-pronged offensives amid weakened local Russian and Iranian military presence, reportedly due to the countries' respective involvement in the invasion of Ukraine and conflict with Israel. Aleppo, Homs and Daraa, three of the largest Syrian cities, fell to the rebels within a week, who also encircled Syria's capital Damascus.

Transitional period

On 8 December 2024, Bashar al-Assad fled the capital as the rebels stormed in. Assad's protecting power Russia claimed that Assad had left Syria for Moscow. Rebels inside the capital announced the end of the six-decade Ba'athist rule in Syria. US-Syria foreign relations; The presidents of the two countries had a meeting (2025); Twenty-five years earlier, there was a meeting at that level. In 2025, the U.S. started (taking away or) lifting sanctions against Syria. U.S. soldiers have been patroling with Syrian forces (in Syria), as late as 2025's fourth quarter.

Transitional period

After the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024, the Syrian presidency became vacant. The caretaker government carried out the duties of the head of state. Ahmed al-Sharaa became the de facto leader of Syria and led the new administration. Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali remained in office until Mohammed al-Bashir was appointed to lead the new government on 10 December 2024. On 29 January 2025, the Syrian General Command appointed al-Sharaa as president of Syria during the transitional period. On 31 January, al-Sharaa announced plans for a new "constitutional declaration" to replace the Syrian Constitution of 2012. On 13 March 2025, al-Sharaa approved the Constitutional Declaration. It established a five-year transitional period. On 29 March 2025, the caretaker government was replaced by the Syrian transitional government. Al-Sharaa announced the new government at the People's Palace in Damascus, where the new ministers took their oaths of office. The position of prime minister was abolished.

Military

The President of Syria is the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces. The armed forces have about 100,000 troops available for mobilization. Until 2024, military service was compulsory for men from age 18. The required service period was gradually reduced from 30 months to 18 months. The Soviet Union was once Syria's main source of military training, equipment, and financial support. After the Soviet Union collapsed, it became harder for Syria to get modern military equipment. Syria also has surface-to-surface missiles. In the 1990s, it bought Scud-C missiles from North Korea. These missiles had a range of about 500-kilometre (310-mile). Syria was also reportedly developing Scud-D missiles with a range of up to 700 kilometres (430 miles), with help from North Korea and Iran.

After the fall of the Assad regime, the Syrian transitional government began reorganising Syria's military forces. On 21 December 2024, Murhaf Abu Qasra was appointed defence minister of the interim government. Ali Noureddine al-Naasan serves as Chief of the General Staff. On 25 August 2026, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) formally dissolved and joined the national military. About 10,000 to 12,000 SDF fighters were added to state defense units. This brought the total active strength of the Syrian Armed Forces to about 180,000 to 182,000 personnel.

Human rights

Before the fall of the Assad regime, human rights in Syria were a major concern. Human Rights Watch described Syria's human rights record as "among the worst in the world." Syria was also rated "Not Free" by Freedom House.

The Ba'athist government was accused of political repression, censorship, forced disappearances, arbitrary arrests, and torture. During the Syrian civil war, civilians were also killed in massacres and attacks, including attacks using chemical weapons.

During the 2011 uprising, government forces were accused of killing protesters and committing other human rights abuses. Syrian opposition groups also reported mass killings during the civil war. In August 2013, the Syrian government was suspected of using chemical weapons against civilians. During the civil war, civilians and minority groups were targeted by different armed groups. In 2017, the United States launched a missile attack on a Syrian air base after a chemical attack on civilians. In 2019, a U.S. airstrike in Syria killed civilians. In 2021, the U.S. Central Command said the strike was legitimate.

Administrative divisions

Syria is divided into 14 governorates, which are divided into 61 districts. The districts are further divided into sub-districts.

Transitional period

After the fall of the Assad regime, the formation of the Syrian transitional government and the lifting of sanctions on the former Ba'athist-led government have helped Syria's economy grow. Syrian news agency Levant24 reported that the country's GDP had reached $32 billion, an increase of 30% to 35%. It also reported that Syria had recorded a budget surplus for the first time since the Syrian civil war and expected GDP to reach $60–65 billion, about the same level as before the war. Recent visits by President Ahmed al-Sharaa have also created opportunities for investment in Syria. During his visit to the United Kingdom, he met with the Syrian-British Business Council. He also held meetings in Germany to strengthen economic ties and attract investment. However, during the 2026 Iran war, the prices of food, oil, and other goods increased significantly. The Syrian Arab News Agency, the state-owned news agency, reported price increases of more than 12% to 20%.

Ba'athist Syria

The 2011 civil war badly affected Syria's economy. However, the economy had already started to decline before the war. Syria's share of global exports had slowly decreased since 2001. GDP growth per person was only 2.5% per year between 2000 and 2008. Poverty increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007. Before the war, Syria was one of the most active markets in the Middle East. The government wanted to change Syria into a free-market economy. Growing oil reserves helped the economy grow and created opportunities for foreign companies and investors. At the start of the civil war, the World Bank classified Syria as a "lower middle income country". During the civil war, Syria's economy became much weaker. The government depended on customs and income taxes, as well as financial support from Iran, Russia, and China. The Syrian pound lost 80% of its value, and the economy became partly state-owned and partly a war economy. The economy was highly controlled by the government, which increased subsidies and trade controls to protect foreign currency reserves. In 2024, the World Bank estimated that economic activity had fallen by 84% between 2010 and 2023.

Transport

Syria has four international airports: Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia, and Qamishli. They are used by Syrian Air and Fly Cham, as well as several foreign airlines. Syria has 2,850 kilometres (1,770 mi) of railways. In 2025, about 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) of the railway network was not operating because it was damaged during the civil war. Much of the rolling stock was also in poor condition. As of 2024, Syria had no international train services. However, high-speed rail in Turkey was being extended closer to the Syrian border. The last train between Syria and Jordan operated in September 2011. The transitional government planned to rebuild the Syrian part of the Hejaz Jordan Railway. In August 2025, a passenger train made its first trial trip between Aleppo and Hama after months of repair work. Plans were made to restart regular train services between the two cities.

Telecommunications and water resources

Telecommunications in Syria are managed by the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. Syrian Telecom also plays an important role in providing internet access. During the Syrian civil war, the Syrian Electronic Army was a pro-Assad group supported by the Ba'athist government. It operated online and was reportedly an enemy of the decentralized hacktivist group Anonymous. Under Ba'athist rule, about 13,000 internet activists were arrested in 2011 and 2012. Syria is a semi-arid country with limited water resources. Agriculture uses the most water in the country. Household water use accounts for only about 9% of total water use.

Ethnic groups

Syrians are an indigenous people of the Levant. They are closely related to nearby peoples, including Lebanese, Palestinians, Jordanians, and Jews. Assyrians and Western Aramaic speakers number about 400,000 people. Western Aramaic speakers mainly live in Maaloula, Jubb'adin, and Bakh'a. Assyrians mainly live in northern and northeastern Syria, including Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, and Hasakah. Many Assyrians still speak Neo-Aramaic languages and dialects.

The second-largest ethnic group in Syria is the Kurds. They make up about 9% to 10% of the population, or about 2 million people, including about 40,000 Yazidis. Most Kurds live in northeastern Syria and speak the Kurmanji dialect of the Kurdish language. The third-largest ethnic group is the Turkmen. They mainly speak Turkish. There are no reliable estimates of their population. Estimates range from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million people. The fourth-largest ethnic group is the Assyrians. They make up about 3% to 4% of the population. The Circassians make up about 1.5%, while the Armenians make up about 1%. There are also smaller ethnic groups, including Albanians, Bosnians, Georgians, Greeks, Persians, Pashtuns, and Russians. The largest Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil, which has millions of people with Arab and other Middle Eastern ancestry.

Languages

Arabic is the official language of Syria. Other languages spoken in Syria include Kurdish, Turkish, Neo-Aramaic, Circassian, Chechen, Armenian, and Greek. In 2026, Kurdish was recognized as a national language of Syria. The other minority languages do not have official status. Many educated Syrians also speak English, Russian, or French. English is the most widely spoken foreign language. French is mainly spoken by some Christians and educated Syrians. There are fewer than 4,500 French speakers today. Before the Syrian civil war, about 8,000 students studied in French-speaking Catholic schools. English and French are also used as second languages in Syria, but English is more widely spoken.

Religion

Islam is the largest religion in Syria. About 87% of the population follows Islam. Sunni Muslims make up about 74% of the population. Sunni Arabs make up about 59% to 60%. Most Kurds (about 8.5%) and most Turkmens (about 3%) are Sunni Muslims. About 3% of Syrians are Shia Muslims, including Ismailis and Twelvers. Shia Muslims include Arabs, Kurds, and Turkmens. About 10% of Syrians are Alawites, 10% are Christians, and 3% are Druze. The Druze population is about 500,000. Most Druze live in southern Syria, especially in Jabal al-Druze.

According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), 94.17% of Syrians were Muslims in 2020. This included 79.19% Sunnis and 14.10% Shias, including Alawites. Christians made up 3.84%. Syria also has many Christian monasteries. Many Christian Syrians belonged to higher socio-economic groups. Syria once had a large Jewish population. Large Jewish communities lived in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishli. Because the Assad family was Alawite, Alawites historically held many important positions in the government and military.

Health

The Syrian civil war badly affected healthcare, health conditions, and medical facilities in Syria. In 2023, the World Health Organization estimated that Syria had about 23.6 million people. In 2021, the average life expectancy was 73.1 years. The infant mortality rate was about 12.1 deaths for every 1,000 live births in 2022. The under-five mortality rate was about 21.4 deaths for every 1,000 live births. The long conflict badly damaged Syria's healthcare system. In 2023, more than half of the country's hospitals were not working. About 15.3 million people needed health support, or about 72% of the population. This was a 25% increase from 2022 and showed that the health crisis was getting worse. Before the conflict, Syria had a maternal mortality rate of 52 deaths for every 100,000 live births in 2009.