Essential oil

For the Midnight Oil album, see Essential Oils (album). Not to be confused with essential fatty acid or fragrance oils.

Essential oils, volatile oils, ethereal oils or aetheroleum are types of oils composed of hydrophobic volatile organic compounds, usually in liquid form, obtained from plant material, such as oil of clove from clove. An essential oil is "essential" in the sense that the oil contains the fragrance or "essence" of that plant. The term "essential" used here does not indicate that it is nutritionally required in the diet, as with essential amino acid or essential fatty acid. A natural component of plant rinds, leaves, or bark, essential oils are fragrant if the plant is crushed or industrially extracted using a steam process.

Essential oils have diverse chemical properties and uses, such as inhalation for aromatherapy or application on skin when diluted for massage. They may be used to lessen pain or exert a cough-suppressing effect.

Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm, including allergic reactions or other adverse effects if ingested, particularly by children.

Production

Essential oils, according to ISO, are produced by steam distillation, by mechanical manipulation of the rind of the fruits of the genus Citrus (also called cold pressing), and by a variety of solvent extraction techniques. An estimated 100,000 tons of essential oils are produced annually (2015).

Production quantities

Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.

OilTonnes
Sweet orange12,000
Mentha arvensis4,800
Peppermint3,200
Cedarwood2,600
Lemon2,300
Eucalyptus globulus2,070
Litsea cubeba2,000
Clove (leaf)2,000
Spearmint1,300

Uses

As pesticides

Some essential oils have potential as a natural pesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods. These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth, decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests. Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, cedarwood, and eucalyptus.

Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control, and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET, which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.

In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions. In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers. As of 2012 some EOs are authorized, and in use, in the European Union: Melaleuca oil as a fungicide, citronella oil as a herbicide, Syzygium aromaticum oil as a fungicide and bactericide, Mentha spicata oil as a plant growth regulator; Citrus sinensis oil (only in France) for Bemisia tabaci on Cucurbita pepo and Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Solanum lycopersicum; and approvals for oils of Thymus, C. sinensis, and Tagetes as insecticides are pending.

In food

In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it was in the 20th century when essential oils were considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

GRAS substances according to the FDA

Common name Botanical name of plant source
Alfalfa Medicago sativa L.
Allspice Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Bitter almond, free from cyanide Prunus amygdalus Batsch, Prunus armeniaca L., or Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.
Ambrette (seed) Hibiscus moschatus Moench.
Angelica root Angelica archangelica L.
Angelica seed
Angelica stem
Angostura (cusparia bark) Galipea officinalis Hancock, Angostura trifoliata
Anise Pimpinella anisum L.
Asafetida Ferula assa-foetida L. and related spp. of Ferula
Balm (lemon balm) Melissa officinalis L.
Balsam of Peru Myroxylon pereirae Klotzsch.
Basil Ocimum basilicum L.
Bay leaves Laurus nobilis L.
Bay (myrcia oil) Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J. W. Moore.
Bergamot (bergamot orange) Citrus aurantium L. subsp. bergamia Wright et Arn.
Bitter almond (free from prussic acid) Prunus amygdalus Batsch, Prunus armeniaca L., or Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.
Bois de rose Aniba rosaeodora Ducke.
Cacao Theobroma cacao L.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, German or Hungarian Matricaria chamomilla L.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, Roman or English Anthemis nobilis L.
Cananga Cananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
Capsicum Capsicum frutescens L. and Capsicum annuum L.
Caraway Carum carvi L.
Cardamom seed (cardamon) Elettaria cardamomum Maton.
Carob bean Ceratonia siliqua L.
Carrot Daucus carota L.
Cascarilla bark Croton eluteria Benn.
Cassia bark, Chinese Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cassia bark, Padang or Batavia Cinnamomum burmanni Blume.
Cassia bark, Saigon Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Celery seed Apium graveolens L.
Cherry, wild, bark Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Chervil Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm.
Chicory Cichorium intybus L.
Cinnamon bark, Ceylon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Cinnamon bark, Chinese Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon bark, Saigon Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, Ceylon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, Chinese Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon leaf, Saigon Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Citronella Cymbopogon nardus Rendle.
Citrus peels Citrus spp.
Clary (clary sage) Salvia sclarea L.
Clover Trifolium spp.
Coca (decocainized) Erythroxylum coca Lam. and other spp. of Erythroxylum
Coffee Coffea spp.
Cola nut Cola acuminata Schott and Endl., and other spp. of Cola
Coriander Coriandrum sativum L.
Cumin (cummin) Cuminum cyminum L.
Curaçao orange peel (orange, bitter peel) Citrus aurantium L.
Cusparia bark Galipea officinalis Hancock
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Weber and Taraxacum laevigatum DC.
Dandelion root
Dog grass (quackgrass, triticum) Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.
Elder flowers Sambucus canadensis L. and Sambucus nigra I.
Estragole (esdragol, esdragon, tarragon) Artemisia dracunculus L.
Estragon (tarragon)
Fennel, sweet Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Galanga (galangal) Alpinia officinarum Hance.
Geranium Pelargonium spp.
Geranium, East Indian Cymbopogon martini Stapf.
Geranium, rose Pelargonium graveolens L'Her.
Ginger Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Grapefruit Citrus paradisi Macf.
Guava Psidium spp.
Hickory bark Carya spp.
Horehound (hoarhound) Marrubium vulgare L.
Hops Humulus lupulus L.
Horsemint Monarda punctata L.
Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis L.
Immortelle Helichrysum augustifolium DC.
Jasmine Jasminum officinale L. and other spp. of Jasminum
Juniper (berries) Juniperus communis L.
Kola nut Cola acuminata Schott and Endl., and other spp. of Cola
Laurel berries Laurus nobilis L.
Laurel leaves Laurus spp.
Lavender Lavandula officinalis Chaix
Lavender, spike Lavandula latifolia Vill.
Lavandin Hybrids between Lavandula officinalis Chaix and Lavandula latifolin Vill.
Lemon Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Lemon balm (see balm) Melissa officinalis L.
Lemongrass Cymbopogon citratus DC. and Cymbopogon lexuosus Stapf.
Lemon peel Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Lime Citrus aurantifolia Swingle.
Linden flowers Tilia spp.
Locust bean Ceratonia siliqua L,
Lupulin Humulus lupulus L.
Mace Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Mandarin Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Marjoram, sweet Majorana hortensis Moench.
Mate, yerba Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.
Melissa (see balm)
Menthol Mentha spp.
Menthyl acetate
Molasses (extract) Saccharum officinarum L.
Mustard Brassica spp.
Naringin Citrus paradisi Macf.
Neroli, bigarade Citrus aurantium L.
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Onion Allium cepa L.
Orange, bitter, flowers Citrus aurantium L.
Orange, bitter, peel
Orange leaf Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Orange, sweet
Orange, sweet, flowers
Orange, sweet, peel
Origanum Origanum spp.
Palmarosa Cymbopogon martini Stapf.
Paprika Capsicum annuum L.
Parsley Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Mansf.
Pepper, black Piper nigrum L.
Pepper, white
Peppermint Mentha piperita L.
Peruvian balsam Myroxylon pereirae Klotzsch.
Petitgrain Citrus aurantium L.
Petitgrain lemon Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Petitgrain mandarin or tangerine Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Pimenta Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Pimenta leaf
Pipsissewa leaves Chimaphila umbellata Nutt.
Pomegranate Punica granatum L.
Prickly ash bark Xanthoxylum (or Zanthoxylum) americanum Mill. or Xanthoxylum clava-herculis L.
Rose absolute Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L., and vars. of these spp.
Rose (otto of roses, attar of roses)
Rose buds
Rose flowers
Rose fruit (hips)
Rose geranium Pelargonium graveolens L'Her.
Rose leaves Rosa spp.
Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Saffron Crocus sativus L.
Sage Salvia officinalis L.
Sage, Greek Salvia triloba L.
Sage, Spanish Salvia officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia (Vahl) Gams
Savory, summer Satureia hortensis L.
Savory, winter Satureia montana L.
Schinus molle Schinus molle L.
Sloe berries (blackthorn berries) Prunus spinosa L.
Spearmint Mentha spicata L.
Spike lavender Lavandula latifolia Vill.
Tamarind Tamarindus indica L.
Tangerine Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus L.
Tea Thea sinensis L.
Thyme Thymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis var. gracilis Boiss.
Thyme, white
Thyme, wild or creeping Thymus serpyllum L.
Triticum (see dog grass) Elymus repens
Tuberose Polianthes tuberosa L.
Turmeric Curcuma longa L.
Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Andr. or Vanilla tahitensis J. W. Moore.
Violet flowers Viola odorata L.
Violet leaves
Violet leaves absolute
Wild cherry bark Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
Zedoary bark Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.

As antimicrobials

The most commonly used essential oils with antimicrobial action are: phenol-rich EOs such as Thymus spp. Origanum spp., Satureja spp., phenylpropene-rich EOs such as Cinnamomum verum cortex and leaves, Syzygium aromaticum, and alcohol-rich EOs such as Melaleuca alternifolia, Lavandula x intermedia, Lavandula angustifolia, Pelargonium spp., etc.: important antimicrobial compounds are eugenol, eugenol acetate, carvacrol, linalool, thymol, geraniol, cinnamaldehyde, geranial, neral, 1,8-cineole, methyl chavicol, methyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, camphor, α-thujone, (Z)-linalool oxide.

Some essential oils are effective antimicrobials and have been evaluated for food incorporation in vitro. However, actual deployment is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences between culture medium and foods in chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage.

As aromatherapy

Essential oils are used in aromatherapy for relaxation, particularly by people having nausea and pain caused by cancer and chemotherapy. Using essential oils for aromatherapy may give symptom relief from end of life conditions, anxiety, depression, stress or insomnia, and for hospital or home settings in critical care or palliative care.

Raw materials

Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.

Bark
Berries
Flowers
Leaves
Peel
Resin
Rhizome
Roots
Seeds
Woods

Balsam of Peru

Balsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from Myroxylon plants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products. However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.

Garlic oil

Garlic oil is an essential oil derived from garlic.

Eucalyptus oil

Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. There are, however, hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils.

Lavender oil

Lavender essential oil sold at a market in France

Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume. However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular. Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.

Rose oil

There are two major species of rose whose petals used for the production of Rose oil; Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Rose oils can be classified according to their botanical name, their place of origin and their extraction process. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted oil is known as "rose absolute". Rose otto is extracted through hydro-distillation, in which Rosa damascena petals are slowly heated with water. The heat causes the petals to release the essential rose oil. When cooled, the oil (rose otto) floats to the surface of the water (rose hydrosol). In contrast, rose absolute is solvent-extracted. Rose petals are combined with an organic solvent in a slowly rotating drum to draw out the aromatic matter from the flowers. After the solvent is evaporated, the waxy substance remaining is called rose concrete. Rose concrete is filtered with ethanol alcohol to remove waxes and non-aromatic components and leave behind the liquid known as rose absolute.

Toxicity

The potential toxicity of essential oil is related to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil, and to its level or grade of purity. Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils.

Some essential oils, even at extremely low levels, can pose health threats for pregnant women, those who are breastfeeding, those with estrogen-dependent cancers or individuals with epilepsy. Essential oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and developing livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults.

Some essential oils can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove toxic to the liver. If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be toxic, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing, pneumonia, seizures, and possibly severe allergic reactions or coma.

Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight.

Flammability

The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as Class 3 Flammable Liquids, as they have a flash points at or below 60 °C.

Handling

Exposure to essential oils may cause contact dermatitis. Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.

Ingestion

Some essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict good manufacturing practice and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded.

The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients or cause fetal damage, and thus should not be used during pregnancy. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.

Essential oils can be toxic if ingested or absorbed through the skin.

Pregnancy

Some essential oils should not be used by pregnant or breastfeeding women, because they can be abortifacients, cause fetal damage, or disrupt hormones. Key components of essential oils and whole essential oils do not always have the same hormonal effects. Minor compounds in whole oils may have both individual or group (synergistic) effects.

Some essential oils may contain impurities or additives that may be harmful. Some uses of essential oils may be safe during pregnancy (e.g. smelling lavender to reduce stress), but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand.

Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo, and nausea. Pregnant women often report a heightened sensitivity to smells and taste, and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea if ingested.

Toxicology

The following table lists the LD50 or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.

Common nameOral LD50Dermal LD50Notes
Neem14 mg/kg>2 mg/kg
Lemon myrtle2.43 mg/kg2.25 mg/kg
Frankincense>5 mg/kg>5 mg/kgBoswellia carterii
Frankincense>2 mg/kg>2 mg/kgBoswellia sacra
Indian frankincense>2 mg/kg>2 mg/kgBoswellia serrata
Ylang-ylang>5 mg/kg>5 mg/kg
Cedarwood>5 mg/kg>5 mg/kg
Roman chamomile>5 mg/kg>5 mg/kg
White camphor>5 mg/kg>5 mg/kgCinnamomum camphora, extracted from leaves
Yellow camphor3.73 mg/kg>5 mg/kgCinnamomum camphora, extracted from bark
Hot oil3.80 mg/kg>5 mg/kgCinnamomum camphora, oil extracted from leaves
Cassia2.80 mg/kg0.32 mg/kg

Further cautions

In Australia, essential oils (mainly eucalyptus) have caused cases of poisoning, mostly of children.

Standardization of derived products

In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized. The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60.

History

The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to produce traditional medicines and scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, including frankincense, myrrh, cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon.[better source needed] Essential oils have been used in folk medicine over centuries. The Persian physician Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation, while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may be Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Arab Al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician, pharmacist and chemist.

Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen".

See also

References

  1. ↑ "essential oil". Oxford English Dictionary (online, American English ed.). Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
  2. ↑ Mousavi-Sagharchi SM, Rami MR, Hasani H, et al. (February 2026). "Assessment of the efficacy of plant-derived essential oils against Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis". New Microbes and New Infections. 69 101699. doi:10.1016/j.nmni.2026.101699. ISSN 2052-2975. PMC 12830100. PMID 41583911.
  3. ↑ Reeds PJ (2000). "Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (7): 1835S–40S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.7.1835S. PMID 10867060.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Aromatherapy With Essential Oils (PDQ) – Patient Version". National Cancer Institute, US National Institutes of Health. 11 September 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  5. ↑ Haneke KE (February 2002), Turpentine (Turpentine Oil, Wood Turpentine, Sulfate Turpentine, Sulfite Turpentine) [8006-64-2]: Review of Toxicological Literature (PDF), National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences{{citation}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)[page needed]
  6. ↑ Larson D, Jacob SE (2012). "Tea Tree Oil". Dermatitis. 23 (1): 48–9. doi:10.1097/DER.0b013e31823e202d. PMID 22653070.
  7. 1 2 Trattner A, David M, Lazarov A (2008). "Occupational contact dermatitis due to essential oils". Contact Dermatitis. 58 (5): 282–4. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01275.x. PMID 18416758. S2CID 10674102.
  8. 1 2 Bleasel N, Tate B, Rademaker M (2002). "Allergic contact dermatitis following exposure to essential oils". Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 43 (3): 211–3. doi:10.1046/j.1440-0960.2002.00598.x. PMID 12121401. S2CID 46674505.
  9. 1 2 Isaksson M, Brandão FM, Bruze M, et al. (2000). "Short Communications". Contact Dermatitis. 43 (1): 41–2. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0536.2000.043001041.x. PMID 10902588. S2CID 221576846.
  10. ↑ Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E (2012). "Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series". The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine. 24 (3): 147–61. doi:10.3233/JRS-2012-0568. PMID 22936057.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Essential oils: Poisonous when misused". US National Capital Poison Center. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  12. ↑ "European, American and International Standards online". iThe Standards. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
  13. ↑ Panten J, Surburg H (2015). "Flavors and Fragrances, 4. Natural Raw Materials". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. pp. 1–58. doi:10.1002/14356007.t11_t03. ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
  14. ↑ "ISO TC 54 Business Plan – Essential oils" (PDF). Retrieved 14 September 2006. It is unclear from the source what period of time the quoted figures include.
  15. 1 2 Nerio LS, Olivero-Verbel J, Stashenko E (1 January 2010). "Repellent activity of essential oils: A review". Bioresource Technology. 101 (1): 372–378. Bibcode:2010BiTec.101..372N. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.048. ISSN 0960-8524. PMID 19729299.
  16. 1 2 3 Regnault-Roger C, Vincent C, Arnason JT (7 January 2012). "Essential Oils in Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World". Annual Review of Entomology. 57 (1): 405–424. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 21942843.
  17. 1 2 Regnault-Roger C (1 February 1997). "The potential of botanical essential oils for insect pest control". Integrated Pest Management Reviews. 2 (1): 25–34. doi:10.1023/A:1018472227889. ISSN 1353-5226. S2CID 39007186.
  18. 1 2 Koul O, Suresh W, Dhaliwal GS (2008). "Essential Oils as Green Pesticides: Potential and Constraints". Biopesticides International. 4 (1): 63–84. S2CID 85741148.
  19. ↑ Isman MB (12 September 2000). "Plant essential oils for pest and disease management". Crop Protection. 19 (8–10): 603–608. Bibcode:2000CrPro..19..603I. doi:10.1016/S0261-2194(00)00079-X. ISSN 0261-2194. S2CID 39469817.
  20. ↑ Preedy VR (28 September 2015). Essential oils in food preservation, flavor and safety. Amsterdam: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-416644-8. OCLC 922581414.
  21. 1 2 "CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21". www.accessdata.fda.gov. Archived from the original on 15 September 2003. Retrieved 8 December 2018. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  22. ↑ "Wieviel Prozent Blausäure enthält natürliches Bittermandelöl? (What percentage of cyanide does natural bitter almond oil contain?)".
  23. 1 2 Rao J, Chen B, McClements DJ (25 March 2019). "Improving the Efficacy of Essential Oils as Antimicrobials in Foods: Mechanisms of Action". Annual Review of Food Science and Technology. 10 (1): 365–387. doi:10.1146/annurev-food-032818-121727. ISSN 1941-1413. PMID 30653350. S2CID 58656780.
  24. 1 2 Farrar AJ, Farrar FC (December 2020). "Clinical Aromatherapy". The Nursing Clinics of North America. 55 (4): 489–504. doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2020.06.015. PMC 7520654. PMID 33131627.
  25. ↑ "Aromatherapy: Do Essential Oils Really Work?". Johns Hopkins Medicine. 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  26. ↑ "Balsam of Peru". go.drugbank.com. DrugBank. 11 December 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
  27. ↑ Arenholt-Bindslev D, Jolanki R, Kanerva L (2009). "Diagnosis of Side Effects of Dental Materials, with Special Emphasis on Delayed and Immediate Allergic Reactions". In Schmalz G, Arenholt-Bindslev D (eds.). Biocompatibility of Dental Materials. Springer. p. 352. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77782-3_14. ISBN 978-3-540-77782-3. Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
  28. ↑ Habif TP (2009). Clinical Dermatology. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-08037-8. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
  29. ↑ Yiannias JA (2013). "Contact Dermatitis". In Bope ET, Kellerman RD (eds.). Conn's Current Therapy 2014: Expert Consult. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-22572-4.
  30. ↑ Linskens H, Adams R, Crespo M, et al. (2012). Essential Oils and Waxes. Molecular Methods of Plant Analysis. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 105. ISBN 978-3-642-84023-4. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  31. ↑ Batish DR, Singh HP, Kohlia RK, et al. (10 December 2008). "Eucalyptus essential oil as a natural pesticide". Forest Ecology and Management. 256 (12): 2166–2174. Bibcode:2008ForEM.256.2166B. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2008.08.008.
  32. ↑ Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Vol. 8 (4th ed.). Longmans Green. 1947.[page needed]
  33. ↑ N. Groom. New Perfume Handbook. Springer Science & Business Media, 1997 ISBN 9780751404036, pp. 184-186
  34. ↑ Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, et al. (2007). "Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils". New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 479–485. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.
  35. ↑ Debboun, Mustapha, Frances, Stephen P., Strickman, Daniel, eds. (2014). Insect Repellents Handbook (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-4665-5355-2.
  36. ↑ Mohebitabar S, Shirazi M, Bioos S, et al. (May 2017). "Therapeutic efficacy of rose oil: A comprehensive review of clinical evidence". Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine. 7 (3): 206–213. PMC 5511972. PMID 28748167.
  37. ↑ Nedeltcheva-Antonova D, Stoicheva P, Antonov L (1 December 2017). "Chemical profiling of Bulgarian rose absolute (Rosa damascena Mill.) using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and trimethylsilyl derivatives". Industrial Crops and Products. 108: 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.06.007. ISSN 0926-6690.
  38. 1 2 3 Dosoky NS, Setzer WN (27 February 2021). "Maternal Reproductive Toxicity of Some Essential Oils and Their Constituents". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 22 (5): 2380. doi:10.3390/ijms22052380. PMC 7956842. PMID 33673548.
  39. ↑ Rana P, Pathania D, Gaur P, et al. (May 2025). "Regulatory frameworks for fragrance safety in cosmetics: a global overview". Toxicological Research. 41 (3): 199–220. Bibcode:2025ToxRe..41..199R. doi:10.1007/s43188-025-00283-2. PMC 12021755. PMID 40291114.
  40. ↑ Alnuqaydan AM (2024). "The dark side of beauty: an in-depth analysis of the health hazards and toxicological impact of synthetic cosmetics and personal care products". Frontiers in Public Health. 12 1439027. Bibcode:2024FrPH...1239027A. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1439027. PMC 11381309. PMID 39253281.
  41. ↑ Kaddu S, Kerl H, Wolf P (2001). "Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 45 (3): 458–61. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.116226. PMID 11511848.
  42. ↑ "Safety Data Sheet Organic Tea Tree Essential Oil (Melaleuca alternifolia)" (PDF). NHR. Retrieved 4 December 2025.
  43. ↑ "Safety Data Sheet Organic English Lavender Essential Oil (Lavandula angustifolia)" (PDF). NHR. Retrieved 4 December 2025.
  44. ↑ "Material Safety Data Sheet: Organic Orange Oil Sweet" (PDF). NHR. Retrieved 4 December 2025.
  45. ↑ "Hazard Class 3: Flammable Liquids | Environment, Health and Safety". Environment, Health and Safety, Cornell University. Retrieved 4 December 2025.
  46. ↑ Ali S, Ekbbal R, Salar S, et al. (31 October 2023). "Quality Standards and Pharmacological Interventions of Natural Oils: Current Scenario and Future Perspectives". ACS Omega. 8 (43): 39945–39963. doi:10.1021/acsomega.3c05241. PMC 10635672. PMID 37953833.
  47. ↑ Bischoff K, Guale F (1998). "Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 10 (2): 208–10. doi:10.1177/104063879801000223. PMID 9576358.
  48. ↑ Fouyet S, Olivier E, Leproux P, et al. (28 June 2022). "Evaluation of Placental Toxicity of Five Essential Oils and Their Potential Endocrine-Disrupting Effects". Current Issues in Molecular Biology. 44 (7): 2794–2810. doi:10.3390/cimb44070192. PMC 9323951. PMID 35877416.
  49. ↑ Iordache AM, Nechita C, Voica C, et al. (7 June 2022). "Assessing the Health Risk and the Metal Content of Thirty-Four Plant Essential Oils Using the ICP-MS Technique". Nutrients. 14 (12): 2363. doi:10.3390/nu14122363. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 9229550. PMID 35745094.
  50. ↑ Vidal-García E, Vallhonrat-Bueno M, Pla-Consuegra F, et al. (5 December 2024). "Efficacy of Lavender Essential Oil in Reducing Stress, Insomnia, and Anxiety in Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review". Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland). 12 (23): 2456. doi:10.3390/healthcare12232456. ISSN 2227-9032. PMC 11641599. PMID 39685078.
  51. ↑ Kwon D, Fessler D, Knorr DA, et al. (2025). "Of scents and cytokines: How olfactory and food aversions relate to nausea and immunomodulation in early pregnancy". Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health. 13 (1): 269–280. doi:10.1093/emph/eoaf016. PMC 12476167. PMID 41017872.
  52. ↑ Dweck AC (September 2009). "Toxicology of essential oils reviewed" (PDF). Personal Care. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  53. ↑ Lee KA, Harnett JE, Cairns R (2019). "Essential oil exposures in Australia: analysis of cases reported to the NSW Poisons Information Centre". Medical Journal of Australia. 212 (3): 132–133. doi:10.5694/mja2.50403. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 31709543. S2CID 207940224.
  54. ↑ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 4720:2002 Essential oils – Nomenclature". Retrieved 23 April 2009.
  55. ↑ International Organization for Standardization. "71.100.60: Essential oils". Retrieved 14 June 2009.
  56. ↑ K. Husnu Can Baser, Gerhard Buchbauer (28 December 2009). Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology, and Applications. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6316-5.
  57. ↑ Essa A, Ali O (2010). Studies in Islamic Civilization: The Muslim Contribution to the Renaissance. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 70. ISBN 978-1-56564-350-5.
  58. ↑ Houtsma M (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Vol. 4. Brill. pp. 1011–. ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2.
  59. ↑ Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P, eds. (1990). Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (8th ed.). New York: Pergamon. ISBN 978-0-08-040296-3. [page needed]
  60. ↑ Klaassen CD, Amdur MO, Casarett LJ, et al. (1991). Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-105239-9.[page needed]

Further reading