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This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. (March 2024) |
Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire corpus of works authored by rabbis throughout Jewish history. The term typically refers to literature from the Talmudic era (70–640 CE), as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writings. It aligns with the Hebrew term Sifrut Chazal (Hebrew: ספרות חז״ל), which translates to “literature [of our] sages” and generally pertains only to the sages (Chazal) from the Talmudic period. This more specific sense of "Rabbinic literature"—referring to the Talmud, Midrashim (Hebrew: מדרשים), and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts—is how the term is generally intended when used in contemporary academic writing. The terms mefareshim and parshanim (commentaries and commentators) almost always refer to later, post-Talmudic writers of rabbinic glosses on Biblical and Talmudic texts.
The Midr'she halakha, Mishnah, and Tosefta (compiled from materials pre-dating the year 200 CE) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, expounding and developing Judaism's Oral Law, as well as ethical teachings. Following these came the two Talmuds:
The earliest extant material witness to rabbinic literature of any kind is the Tel Rehov inscription dating to the 6th–7th centuries, also the longest Jewish inscription from late antiquity. Meanwhile, the earliest extant Talmudic manuscripts are from the 8th century.
Midrash (מדרש; pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into or out of a biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings in the form of legal, exegetical, homiletical, or narrative writing, often configured as a commentary on the Bible or Mishnah. There are a large number of "classical" Midrashic works spanning a period from Mishnaic to Geonic times, often showing evidence of having been worked and reworked from earlier materials and frequently coming to us in multiple variants. A compact list of these works, drawing upon Barry Holtz's Back to the Sources, is given below. The timeline below is approximate because many of the works were composed over a long period, borrowing and collating material from earlier versions; their histories are, therefore, somewhat uncertain and the subject of scholarly debate. In the table, "n.e." designates that the work in question is not extant except in secondary references.
| Estimated date | Exegetical | Homiletical | Narrative |
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Tannaitic period |
Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael |
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400–650 CE |
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650–900 CE |
Deuteronomy Rabbah |
Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer | |
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900–1000 CE |
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1000–1200 |
Midrash Aggadah of Moses ha-Darshan |
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Later |
Sefer ha-Yashar |
The Geonim are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha in Babylon (650–1250 CE) :
The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000–1550 CE)
The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day.
The Holocaust led to the annihilation of substantial numbers of Jewish religious books and manuscripts, as well as the deaths of many rabbinic writers and scholars. In the decades that followed, the reemergence of rabbinic writings and the rescue, editing, and reprinting of pre-Holocaust texts became an essential part of postwar Orthodox Jewish renaissance.
Isaac Hershkowitz and Lea Zanbar identified the reasons why rabbinic scholars engaged in the post-Holocaust literary renaissance. Their findings included that the main reasons behind the literary activity were creating new content and saving and continuing the legacy of the past writings and books, as well as rebuilding the canon. Motives such as commemoration, as well as coping with the personal and collective bereavement, underlay the post-Holocaust literary renaissance in Judaism.
They documented a substantial expansion in Jewish religious book publishing during the postwar decades. According to the bibliographic data they examined, the number of titles published increased from approximately 3,322 in 1945–1954 to 10,124 in 1985–1994, although technological and economic developments also contributed to this growth.
Mefareshim is a Hebrew word meaning "commentators" (or roughly meaning "exegetes"), Perushim means "commentaries". In Judaism, these words refer to commentaries on the Torah (five books of Moses), Tanakh, Mishnah, Talmud, the responsa literature, or even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more.
Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by the following individuals:
Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi, the Tosafot was written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciples and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in the rabbinic academies of Germany and France.[citation needed]
Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide acclaim in the Jewish community include:
Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by:
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