Seljuk dynasty

Seljuk dynasty
Double-headed eagle, used as a symbol by several Seljuk rulers including Kayqubad I.
Parent family
Oghuz Turks
CountrySeljuk's Dominion at Cend
Great Seljuk Empire
Kerman Seljuk Sultanate
Sultanate of Rum
Sultanate of Aleppo
Emirate of Damascus
Kubadoğulları Emirate
Place of origin
Turkestan
Founded11th century CE
FounderSeljuk
Final rulerKubadoğlu Hüseyin Bey
Historic seat
Initial Dominion:
Great Seljuk:
Kerman Seljuk:
Rum:
Aleppo:
Damascus:
Kubadoğulları:
Titles
StyleSee § Titles
TraditionsReligion:-
Culture:-
Dissolution1422
Deposition
Initial Dominion:
1016 - Tughril I abandoned Cend.
1037 - Tughril I declares Nishapur as capital.
Emirate of Damascus:
1104 – Baktāsh, dethroned by Toghtekin
Great Seljuk Empire:
1194 – Toghrul III was killed in battle with Tekish
Sultanate of Rum:
1308 – Mesud II died. De facto power falls under Mongol Ilkhanid Governers.
Kerman Seljuk Sultanate:
1186 - Muhammad II overthrown by Malik Dinar.
Emirate of Aleppo:
1118 - Sultan Shah hands over Aleppo to Ilghazi.
Kubadoğulları Emirate:
1422 - Kubadoğlu Hüseyin Bey surrenders Samsun to the Ottomans.

The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids (/ˈsɛldʒʊk/ SEL-juuk; Old Anatolian Turkish: سلجك Sälcük; Azerbaijani: Səlcuqlular or Səlcuqilər; Turkmen: Seljuklar; Ottoman Turkish: سلچوق Selçuk; Turkish: Selçuklular; Persian: سلجوقیان Saljuqian,) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids or Seljuk Turks, was an Oghuz Turkic, Sunni Muslim dynasty that culturally became Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persian culture.

The founder of the Seljuk dynasty, Seljuk Beg, was a descendant of a royal Khazar chief Tuqaq who served as advisor to the King of the Khazars, in West Asia and Central Asia. The Seljuks established the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194), the Sultanate of Kermân (1041–1186) and the Sultanate of Rum (1074–1308), which stretched from Iran to Anatolia and were the prime targets of the First Crusade.

Early history

The Seljuks originated from the Kinik branch of the Oghuz Turks, who in the 8th century lived on the periphery of the Muslim world; north of the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea in their Oghuz Yabgu State in the Kazakh Steppe of Turkestan. During the 10th century, Oghuz had come into close contact with Muslim cities. When Seljuk, the leader of the Seljuk clan, had a falling out with Yabghu, the supreme chieftain of the Oghuz, he split his clan from the bulk of the Oghuz Turks and set up camp on the west bank of the lower Syr Darya. Around 985, Seljuk and his clan converted to Islam.

In the 11th century, the Seljuks migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia, in the province of Khurasan, where they encountered the Ghaznavids. The Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Nasa in 1035. Seljuk's grandsons, Tughril and Chaghri, received the insignias of governor, grants of land, and were given the title of dehqan. At the Battle of Dandanaqan, they defeated a Ghaznavid army, and after a successful siege of Isfahan by Tughril in 1050/51, established the Great Seljuk Empire. The Seljuks mixed with the local population and adopted the Persian culture and Persian language in the following decades.

Later period

After arriving in Persia, the Seljuks adopted the Persian culture and used the Persian language as the official language of the government, and played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition which features "Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers". Today, they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture, art, literature, and language.

Seljuk rulers

Rulers of the Seljuk Dynasty

Head of Seljuk male royal figure, 12–13th century, from Iran. Carved and drilled stone with Iranian craftsmanship. Kept at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Toghrol Tower, a 12th-century monument south of Tehran commemorating Toğrül
The Kharāghān twin towers, built in Iran in 1053 to house the remains of Seljuk princes

The "Great Seljuks" were heads of the family; in theory their authority extended over all the other Seljuk lines, although in practice this often was not the case. Turkic custom called for the senior member of the family to be the Great Seljuk, although usually the position was associated with the ruler of western Persia.

Titular name(s) Personal name Reign
Bey
بیگ		 Tughril I
طغرل		 1037–1063
Suleiman
سلیمان شاہ		 1063
Sultan
سلطان		 Alp Arslan (Arslan I)
الپ ارسلان		 1063–1072
Sultan
سلطان
Jalāl al-Dawlah
جلال الدولہ 		Malik Shah I
ملک شاہ یکم 		1072–1092
Sultan
سلطان
Nasir al-Duniya wa al-Din
ناصر الدنیا والدین		 Mahmud I
محمود یکم		 1092–1094
Sultan
سلطان
Abul Muzaffar Rukn al-Duniya wa al-Din
أبو المظفر رکن الدنیا والدین 		Barkiyaruq
برکیارق 		1094–1105
Sultan
سلطان
Muizz al-Din
معز الدین 		Malik Shah II
ملک شاہ دوم 		1104–1105
Sultan
سلطان
Ghiyath al-Duniya wa al-Din
غیاث الدنیا والدین 		Muhammad I Tapar
محمد تاپار 		1105–1118
Sultan
سلطان
Muizz al-Din
معز الدین 		*Ahmad Sanjar
احمد سنجر		 1118–1153
Khwarazmian dynasty replaces the Seljuk dynasty. From 1157, the Oghuz took control of much of Khurasan, with the remainder in the hands of former Seljuk emirs.

Seljuk sultans of Hamadan

The Great Seljuk Empire in 1092, upon the death of Malik Shah I

The rulers of western Persia, who maintained a very loose grip on the Abbasids of Baghdad. Several Turkic emirs gained a strong level of influence in the region, such as the Eldiguzids.

In 1194, Toghrul III was killed in battle with the Khwarezm Shah, who annexed Hamadan.

Seljuk rulers of Kerman

Kerman was a province in southern Persia. Between 1053 and 1154, the territory also included Umman.

or 1074 (before Sultan Shah)

Muhammad abandoned Kerman, which fell into the hands of the Oghuz chief Malik Dinar. Kerman was eventually annexed by the Khwarazmian Empire in 1196.

Seljuk rulers in Syria

The Seljuks exercised rule over parts of Syria for about thirty years, though their nominal suzerainty remained unstable.

Sultans/Emirs of Aleppo:
After the Battle of Ain Salm in 1086, Tutush I besieged and captured Aleppo from its chief Hassan ibn Hibat Allah al-Hutayti, declaring himself the Emir of Aleppo.

However, with the intervention of Malik Shah I, Aq Sunqur al-Hajib, a Non-Seljuqid, was installed as the governor of Aleppo. Aq Sunqur al-Hajib continuously switched alliegances, after finally being beheaded by Tutush I in 1094.

Sultan Shah ibn Radwan hands over Aleppo to the Artuqids, but still acted as a claimant. He also participated in the Siege of Aleppo (1124–1125).

Sultans/Emirs of Damascus:

Damascus seized by the Burid Toghtekin

Seljuk sultans of Rum (Anatolia)

The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in 1190, before the Third Crusade

Kubadoğulları Emirs

Titles

Members of the Seljuk Dynasty often used titles to signify claim and authority. They were also awarded some titles by their subjects and the ulema due to their efforts for public and religious welfare. Here is a list of titles used by/awarded to them. Common titles like Şehzade are not listed.

Great Seljuk (Official/Non-official):
Great Seljuks under Dyarchy(Official/Non-official):

End of Great Seljuk Imperial Authority.

Kirman Seljuks(Official/Non-official):

Comparative genealogy

Family tree

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Toghrul and Chaghri Bey had left Cend before 1016 with their tribe and were engaged in nomadic activities until they entered the service of the Qarakhanids. Since they did not officially undeclared their rule in Cend until 1037 (when Tughril occupied Nishapur), the article represents Cend as a seat of the Seljuks until 1037.
  2. ↑ Held by Seljuk, Mikail ibn Seljuk, Arslan Isra'il and initially by Tughril I and Chaghri Bey together.
  3. ↑ Initially by Tuqaq and Seljuk
  4. ↑ Some Sultans of Rum maintained a dual Christian-Muslim identity, especially Kaykhusraw I and his later rulers. They are alleged to be baptized by Byzantines during exile or secretly by Christian concubines.
  5. ↑ The last Kubadoğulları Emir (Kubadoğlu Hüseyin Bey) surrendered Samsun to the Ottomans.
  6. ↑ Together with Chaghri Bey.
  7. ↑ King of the East and the West
  8. ↑ King of Kings
  9. ↑ The Pillar of State
  10. ↑ Turkish: Ebu'l Feth
  11. ↑ Turkish: Ebu'l Feth
  12. ↑ Turkish: Malik al-Mashriq wa'l-Maghrib
  13. ↑ King of Kings
  14. ↑ King of Kings
  15. ↑ Muhammad Tapar's religious policies were deeply rooted in his personal piety and his strong support for Sunni Islam. He actively worked to strengthen religion and suppress perceived innovations and heresy, particularly those associated with the Ismailis. This commitment earned him the title of a mujahid, or holy warrior, in the strengthening of religion. His reign was characterized by a concerted effort to repel heretical groups who had become "very strong" during his time. The historical memory of Muhammad Tapar is of a just ruler who was a friend to religious clerics.
  16. ↑ Mas'ud was a ruler who held a positive religious reputation among his contemporaries. He was described as a "friend of the 'alim and a giver to the religious poor". His affection for the religious community was a defining feature of his character. The Shaykhs of Baghdad reportedly said that Mas'ud loved to visit the Ulama and the righteous, and to seek knowledge from the shaykhs. He was also noted for bearing "love toward the insane and the lunatic".
  17. ↑ After the death of Ahmad Sanjar.
  18. ↑ As per Al-Husaynī's and Abū Hamid's chronicles.
  19. ↑ As per Al-Husaynī's and Abū Hamid's chronicles.

Notes

  1. ↑ Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249
  2. ↑ Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu'in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676)
  3. ↑ Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone
  4. ↑ ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia
  5. ↑ Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone
  6. ↑ Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers
  7. ↑ According to İbn Bîbî, el-Evâmirü'l-ʿAlâʾiyye, p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 - 17 Muharram 676)
  8. ↑ According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk, p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 - 17 Muharram 678)

References

  1. ↑ Neiberg, Michael S. (2002). Warfare in World History. Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-134-58342-3.
  2. ↑ Harris, Jonathan (2014). Byzantium and the Crusades. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 39–45. ISBN 978-1-78093-736-6.
  3. ↑ Rāvandī, Muḥammad (1385). Rāḥat al-ṣudūr va āyat al-surūr dar tārīkh-i āl-i saljūq. Tihrān: Intishārāt-i Asāṭīr. ISBN 978-964-331-366-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  4. ↑ "The Saljuqids". Encyclopædia Iranica.
  5. ↑ Tetley, G.E (2009). Hillenbrand, Carole (ed.). The Ghaznavid and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian History. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-415-43119-4.
  6. ↑ Fleet, Kate (2009). The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1 (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 1.
  7. ↑ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161, 164; "renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran…", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."
  8. ↑ Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din Nishapuri (2001), "The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami' al-Tawarikh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the Saljuq-nama of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri," Partial tr. K.A. Luther, ed. C.E. Bosworth, Richmond, UK. K.A. Luther, p. 9: "[T]he Turks were illiterate and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire")
  9. ↑ Peacock, A. C. S. (2010). Early Seljūq history : a new interpretation. London: Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-203-85695-6. OCLC 828533970.
  10. ↑ Özgüdenli, Osman Gazi (2018). "Selçukluların Kökeni" [Origin of the Seljuks]. In Turan, Refik (ed.). Selçuklu Tarihi El Kitabı [Seljuk History Handbook] (in Turkish). Grafiker Yayınları. pp. 19–37.
  11. ↑ Golden, Peter (2007). "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism". In Golden, Peter; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; Roná-Tas, András (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Brill. p. 159.
  12. ↑ Concise Britannica Online Seljuq Dynasty Archived 2007-01-14 at the Wayback Machine article
  13. ↑ The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami Al-Tawarikh (LINK)
  14. ↑ Shaw, Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (LINK)
  15. ↑ Golden, Peter B. (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. p. 209
  16. ↑ Wink, Andre, Al Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World Brill Academic Publishers, 1996, ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5 p. 9
  17. ↑ Islam: An Illustrated History, p. 51
  18. ↑ Adas 2001, p. 99.
  19. ↑ Peacock 2015, p. 25.
  20. ↑ Bosworth, C.E. The Ghaznavids: 994–1040, Edinburgh University Press, 1963, 242.
  21. ↑ Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F–O, (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007), 476.
  22. 1 2 O. Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK)
  23. 1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK Archived 2007-12-19 at the Wayback Machine): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."
  24. 1 2 M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25–26 (2005), pp. 157–169
  25. ↑ M.A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK): "... here one might bear in mind that Turco-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."
  26. ↑ F. Daftary, "Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth; UNESCO Publishing, Institute of Ismaili Studies: "... Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) ..."
  27. ↑ Bosworth, C.E.; Hillenbrand, R.; Rogers, J.M.; Blois, F.C. de; Bosworth, C.E.; Darley-Doran, R.E., "Saldjukids," Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2009: "Culturally, the consisting of the Seljuq Empire marked a further step in the dethronement of Arabic from being the sole lingua franca of educated and polite society in the Middle East. Coming as they did through a Transoxania which was still substantially Iranian and into Persia proper, the Seljuqs with no high-level Turkish cultural or literary heritage of their own – took over that of Persia, so that the Persian language became the administration and culture in their land of Persia and Anatolia. The Persian culture of the Rum Seljuqs was particularly splendid, and it was only gradually that Turkish emerged there as a parallel language in the field of government and adab; the Persian imprint in Ottoman civilization was to remain strong until the 19th century.
  28. ↑ Ehsan Yarshater, "Iran" in Encyclopedia Iranica: "The ascent of the Saljuqids also put an end to a period which Minorsky has called "the Persian intermezzo" (see Minorsky, 1932, p. 21), when Iranian dynasties, consisting mainly of the Saffarids, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids, the Kakuyids, and the Bavandids of Tabarestan and Gilan, ruled most of Iran. By all accounts, weary of the miseries and devastations of never-ending conflicts and wars, Persians seemed to have sighed with relief and to have welcomed the stability of the Saljuqid rule, all the more so since the Saljuqids mitigated the effect of their foreignness, quickly adopting the Persian culture and court customs and procedures and leaving the civil administration in the hand of Persian personnel, headed by such capable and learned viziers as 'Amid-al-Molk Kondori and Nezam-al-Molk."
  29. ↑ C.E. Bosworth, "Turkish expansion towards the west", in UNESCO History of Humanity, Volume IV: From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century, UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, 2000. p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose Mathnawī, composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature."
  30. ↑ Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, p. 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers."
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  33. ↑ Black, Jeremy (2005). The Atlas of World History. American Edition, New York: Covent Garden Books. pp. 65, 228. ISBN 978-0-7566-1861-2. This map varies from other maps which are slightly different in scope, especially along the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
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  35. 1 2 3 "THE SELJUKS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS: IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA, C.1040-1250 Coin no. 2 of 14". Two years later he entered Baghdad a second time, and was given the laqab Rukn al-Dawla ("Pillar of the State") and the title malik al-mashriq wa'l-maghrib ("King of the East and the West"), which allowed him to be addressed as sultan.
  36. ↑ Safi 2006, p. 41.
  37. 1 2 3 "THE SELJUKS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS: IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA, C.1040-1250 Coin no. 3 of 14". Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. This coin was struck at the mint of al-Ahwaz, the capital town of Khuzistan, which, together with al-Basra, was the main trading city at the head of the Persian Gulf. On it, Alp Arslan clearly states his power and prestige as "the Exalted Sultan, King of Kings, King of Islam." In the inscription on his coins his name appears as Alb because Arabic lacks the letter "p", but to Persian and Turkish speakers his name is pronounced "Alp".
  38. ↑ "Alparslan". TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 2025-05-04.
  39. ↑ Henry Melvill Gwatkin (1923). The Cambridge Medieval History: The Eastern Roman empire (717-1453). p. 307. Malik Shāh was recognised by the Caliph as his successor, and invested with the title of 'Amir-al-Mu'minin
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Further reading