Cognitive bias

A cognitive bias happens when someone makes a bad choice that they think is a good choice. This bias is an important part of the study of cognitive psychology.

Overview

Cognitive biases do happen. Primitive humans and animals do things which seem foolish later. The scientific method limits the results of cognitive bias. Cognitive bias is a natural consequence of our using "gut feelings"[clarification needed] to make decisions when those decisions cannot be made rational because the evidence is not available.


List of cognitive biases

Some of the cognitive biases, are

Other cognitive biases are, Anchoring biases. They include,

Other cognitive biases are Apophenia. It has several types,

Availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is another cognitive biase. It includes or has to do with the following:

Name Information
Framing
Belief bias
Affinity bias
Implicit bias
Priming bias
Hindsight bias
Anchoring bias An example of the anchoring effect, is that a person can be more likely to buy a car if it is placed next to a more expensive model – the anchor.[source?]

During negotiations, prices that are lower than the price of the anchor, may seem reasonable, or can even seem cheap to the buyer, even if those prices are (still) relatively higher than the actual market value of the car.[better source needed]
Status quo bias
Self-serving bias
Confirmation bias
Embodied cognition
Overconfidence effect Related page: Dunning–Kruger effect.
Fundamental attribution error
Physical attractiveness stereotype A habit or tendency to assume that people who are

physically attractive, are desirable for other reasons, too.

Other information

The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972.

Causes

It grew out of their experience of people's inability to reason with numbers.[clarification needed] Tversky, Kahneman, and colleagues showed several repeatable ways in which human judgments and decisions differ from rational choice. The heuristic people[clarification needed] use are mental shortcuts which provide swift estimates. Heuristics are simple for the brain to compute but sometimes introduce "severe and systematic errors".[source?]

References

  1. ↑ Haselton MG, Nettle D, Andrews PW (2005). "The evolution of cognitive bias.". In Buss D.M. (ed). The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 724–746.
  2. ↑ Kahneman D, Frederick S (2002). "Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment". In Gilovich T, Griffin DW, Kahneman D (eds.). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8.
  3. ↑ Kim M, Daniel JL (2020-01-02). "Common Source Bias, Key Informants, and Survey-Administrative Linked Data for Nonprofit Management Research". Public Performance & Management Review. 43 (1): 232–256. doi:10.1080/15309576.2019.1657915. ISSN 1530-9576. S2CID 203468837. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
  4. ↑ Hilbert M (March 2012). "Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 138 (2): 211–37. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.432.8763. doi:10.1037/a0025940. PMID 22122235. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
  5. ↑ DuCharme WW (1970). "Response bias explanation of conservative human inference". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 85 (1): 66–74. doi:10.1037/h0029546. hdl:2060/19700009379.
  6. ↑ Edwards W (1968). "Conservatism in human information processing". In Kleinmuntz B (ed.). Formal representation of human judgment. New York: Wiley. pp. 17–52.
  7. ↑ "The Psychology Guide: What Does Functional Fixedness Mean?". PsycholoGenie. Archived from the original on 2018-10-11. Retrieved 2018-10-10.
  8. ↑ Iverson GL, Brooks BL, Holdnack JA (2008). "Misdiagnosis of Cognitive Impairment in Forensic Neuropsychology". In Heilbronner RL (ed.). Neuropsychology in the Courtroom: Expert Analysis of Reports and Testimony. New York: Guilford Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-59385-634-2.
  9. ↑ Tversky A, Kahneman D (September 1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases". Science. 185 (4157): 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957.
  10. ↑ Fiedler K (1991). "The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60 (1): 24–36. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.24.
  11. ↑ Maranhão-Filho, P.; Vincent, M. B. (2009). "Neuropareidolia: diagnostic clues apropos of visual illusions". Arquivos de Neuro-psiquiatria 2009. 67 (4): 1117–1123. doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2009000600033. PMID 20069234.
  12. ↑ Schwarz N, Bless H, Strack F, Klumpp G, Rittenauer-Schatka H, Simons A (1991). "Ease of Retrieval as Information: Another Look at the Availability Heuristic" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (2): 195–202. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 19 Oct 2014.
  13. ↑ Coley JD, Tanner KD (2012). "Common origins of diverse misconceptions: cognitive principles and the development of biology thinking". CBE: Life Sciences Education. 11 (3): 209–215. doi:10.1187/cbe.12-06-0074. PMC 3433289. PMID 22949417.
  14. ↑ Harris LT, Fiske ST (January 2011). "Dehumanized Perception: A Psychological Means to Facilitate Atrocities, Torture, and Genocide?". Zeitschrift für Psychologie. 219 (3): 175–181. doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000065. PMC 3915417. PMID 24511459.
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  16. ↑ Zwicky A (2005-08-07). "Just Between Dr. Language and I". Language Log.
  17. ↑ Soprano, Michael; Roitero, Kevin; La Barbera, David; Ceolin, Davide; Spina, Damiano; Demartini, Gianluca; Mizzaro, Stefano (2024-05-01). "Cognitive Biases in Fact-Checking and Their Countermeasures: A Review". Information Processing & Management. 61 (3) 103672. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2024.103672. ISSN 0306-4573.
  18. ↑ Maiers, Claire (2018). "Reading the Tea Leaves: Ethnographic Prediction as Evidence". Ethnographic Praxis in Industry Conference Proceedings. 2018 (1): 351–363. doi:10.1111/1559-8918.2018.01212. ISSN 1559-8918. Retrieved 2025-01-30.
  19. ↑ Thakrar, Monica. "Council Post: Unconscious Bias And Three Ways To Overcome It". Forbes.
  20. ↑ Anchoring Definition, Investopedia, retrieved September 29, 2015
  21. ↑ Cho, I. et al. (2018) 'The Anchoring Effect in Decision-Making with Visual Analytics', 2017 IEEE Conference on Visual Analytics Science and Technology, VAST 2017 - Proceedings. IEEE, pp. 116–126. doi:10.1109/VAST.2017.8585665.
  22. ↑ Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L. and Thaler, R. H. (1991) Anomalies The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias, Journal of Economic Perspectives.
  23. ↑ Dean, M. (2008) 'Status quo bias in large and small choice sets', New York, p. 52. Available at: http://www.yorkshire-exile.co.uk/Dean_SQ.pdf Archived 2010-12-25 at the Wayback Machine.
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  25. ↑ Jermias J (2001). "Cognitive dissonance and resistance to change: The influence of commitment confirmation and feedback on judgement usefulness of accounting systems". Accounting, Organizations and Society. 26 (2): 141–160. doi:10.1016/s0361-3682(00)00008-8.
  26. ↑ Gimpel, Henner (2008), Gimpel, Henner; Jennings, Nicholas R.; Kersten, Gregory E.; Ockenfels, Axel (eds.), "Cognitive Biases in Negotiation Processes", Negotiation, Auctions, and Market Engineering, Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing, vol. 2, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 213–226, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77554-6_16, ISBN 978-3-540-77553-9, retrieved 2020-11-25{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  27. ↑ Jones EE, Harris VA (1967). "The attribution of attitudes". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 3: 1–24. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0.
  28. ↑ Lorenz, Kate. (2005). "Do Pretty People Earn More?" http://www.CNN.com.
  29. ↑ Kahneman D, Frederick S (2002). "Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment". In Gilovich T, Griffin DW, Kahneman D (eds.). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8.
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