The Kamula–Elevala languages, also called the Kamula–Elevala River languages, are a small family of Papuan languages spoken in northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea, in the region of the Elevala River. The family has three languages: Kamula, and the more closely related Aekyom (Awin) and Pa (Pare), which together make up the Awin–Pa, or Elevala, subgroup. They had about 28,700 speakers in 2000.
The link between Kamula and the Awin–Pa languages was established by Edgar Suter and Timothy Usher (2017), who reconstructed Proto-Kamula–Elevala. Within the Trans–New Guinea family, Kamula–Elevala is placed in the Awyu–Ok branch.
Languages
There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.:107
Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.:106 Timothy Usher's New Guinea World places the family within the Awyu–Ok branch of Trans–New Guinea.
Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017)::114–116
Proto-Elevala reconstructions
gloss
Proto-Elevala
hand, arm
*a
lie down
*æ-
sand
*daNi
give
*dæ-
flea
*dideme
meat
*dinæ
testicles
*dipɔ
crocodile
*dope
sap, juice
*dɔdæ
fingernail
*d(ɔ,a)kæ
see
*dV-
sugarcane
*ga
beak
*ga
sing
*gi-
gums
*gine
younger brother
*gɔmɔde
cut
*gu
stick
*gum(ɔ,a)
count
*hiakV-
breath
*hine
do, make
*hɔmV-
carry on head
*i-
stone
*ike
song
*jɔkæ
set on fire
*kamV-
leg
*kate
beetle
*kiame
thunder
*kima(ti)
nose
*kine
face
*kiNɔ-namæ58
white
*kɔnV-kaina59
coconut
*kɔpɔkæ
pig
*mainæ
head
*mini
below
*moka
fish
*mone
stem
*moNæ
what?
*na
cane mail shirt
*napo
charcoal
*o
drum
*pi
heavy
*piena
buttocks
*po
smell
*pɔmæ
bride price
*puNe
goanna
*sɔNɔmæ
yesterday
*te
sago thatch
*temæ
rattan
*tike
ground, earth
*tɔ
wild
*tɔna
Vocabulary comparison
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970), Shaw (1973), and Shaw (1986), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.
The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. kɔ, kro for 'bone') or not (e.g. mɔgɔ, kɛndɔkɛ for 'ear'). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.
Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970)::128
Abbreviations
pAD = proto-Awyu–Dumut
pA = proto-Awyu
pD = proto-Dumut
pKE = proto-Kamula–Elevala
pK = proto-Kamula
pE = proto-Elevala
Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut potential cognates
Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970)
Kamula–Elevala
pAD *dat- 'hear'
pKE *dade- 'hear'
pAD *do- 'be cooked'
pKE *du- 'burn, cook'
pAD *ɛdex- 'give'
pE *dæ- 'give'
pAD *füp 'name'
pKE *hi 'name'
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)'
pE *go 'you (sg.)'
pAD *ket 'flower'
Pa [ke] 'blossom'
pAD *mak 'shoulder'
pKE *makæ 'shoulder'
pAD *nop 'I'
pE *nɔ 'I'
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines'
Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly'
pAD *xaiban 'head'
Pa [keba] 'head'
pAD *xop 'male, man'
pKE *kopo 'man'
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire'
Pa [ẽ] 'tree'
pA *bu 'buttocks'
pE *po 'buttocks'
pA *dübe, *dübi 'island'
Aekyom [dupi] 'island'
pA *düb(-ro) 'heart'
Kamula 'heart'
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath'
pE *moka 'below'
pA *midi(n) 'thigh'
pKE *madina 'thigh'
pA *wün 'liver'
Pa [wumɛ] 'liver'
pA *xui(-to) 'sky'
Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven'
pD *ba- 'sit'
pKE *pV- 'sit'
pD *kumöt 'thunder'
pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'
References
1234567891011121314Suter, Edgar; Usher, Timothy (2017). "The Kamula-Elevala Language Family". Language & Linguistics in Melanesia. 35. Port Moresby: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea: 106–131. ISSN0023-1959.
123456Usher, Timothy. "Digul River – Ok". New Guinea World. Archived from the original on 17 January 2026. Retrieved 27 June 2026.
↑Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian. "Kamula–Elevala". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved 27 June 2026.
↑McElhanon, K. A.; Voorhoeve, C. L. (1970). The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in Deep-level Genetic Relationships. Pacific Linguistics B-16. Canberra: Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-B16.
↑Shaw, R. D. (1973). "A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. (ed.). The Linguistic Situation in the Gulf District and Adjacent Areas, Papua New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics C-26. Canberra: Australian National University. pp.187–215. doi:10.15144/PL-C26.187.
↑Shaw, R. D. (1986). "The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D.; etal. (eds.). Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. Pacific Linguistics A-70. Canberra: Australian National University. pp.45–76. doi:10.15144/PL-A70.45.
↑Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol.4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp.21–196. ISBN978-3-11-028642-7.
↑Healey, Alan (1970). "Proto-Awyu-Dumut phonology". In Wurm, Stephen A.; Laycock, Donald C. (eds.). Pacific Linguistic Studies in Honour of Arthur Capell. Pacific Linguistics C-13. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp.997–1063.
Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp.15–66. doi:10.15144/PL-572. ISBN0858835622. OCLC67292782.
