The Paleolithic ("Old Stone Age") and Mesolithic ("Middle of Stone Age") eras in Europe were defined by a hunter-gatherer way of life and increasingly specialized stone tools. Kostenki 14, who lived in the Don River basin around 37,000 years ago, is among the earliest Europeans whose genome carries an ancestry signature recognizable in contemporary populations of the continent. The Last Glacial Maximum, roughly 27,000 to 19,000 years ago, pushed populations into southern refugia and may have reduced the human population of Europe to as few as 20,000 people. The Western Hunter-Gatherers, who would later dominate the continent and form one of the three distinct ancestral components of modern Europeans, probably later expanded from southeastern Europe. By the late Mesolithic, the coastal foraging Ertebølle of southern Scandinavia (c. 5,400–3,950 BC) were one of the most complex hunter-gatherer cultures in Europe.
Partly reconstructed ruins of Knossos, Crete, c. 1700 BC
The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was the Minoan civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC.
The Minoans were replaced by the Mycenaean civilization which flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, Pylos in Messenia, Athens in Attica, Thebes and Orchomenus in Boeotia, and Iolkos in Thessaly. In Crete, the Mycenaeans occupied Knossos. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant, Cyprus and Italy. Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenaean world.
Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, the centre of the Minoan civilization. The Mycenaean civilization perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse has been variously attributed to Dorian invasion, natural disasters and/or climate change. Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had disappeared after LH III C, when the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns were again destroyed. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the Greek Dark Ages of traditional historiography.
The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of technological history that saw the slow spread of ironworking technology from present-day Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC.
Great Schism between the Latin Church and Eastern Orthodox ChurchEurope in 1100
In 1046 the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III (r. 1046–1056) deposed Pope Gregory VI (r. 1045–1046) – who had purchased his office – along with two other claimants, beginning the process of freeing the leadership of the Latin Church from the control of the local Roman nobility. Pope Leo IX (r. 1049–1054), a German, recruited an international circle of radical reformers who helped him create an "itinerant papacy" that moved from city to city to hold church councils, consecrate cathedrals, and negotiate with secular rulers. After centuries of growing rivalry, Leo's dynamic papacy also precipitated the East–West Schism (also "Great Schism") that split the Latin Church from the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Byzantine Empire in 1054. One of Leo's reformist successors, Pope Nicholas II (r. 1059–1061), and his influential advisor Cardinal Hildebrand of Sovana, issued the papal bull In nomine Domini (1059), which stripped the Holy Roman Emperor of his traditional role in appointing popes and established the College of Cardinals as the sole electors. After Cardinal Hildebrand was himself electedPope Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085), he worked both to improve the moral integrity and independence of Church clergy and to establish the total freedom of the Church from secular interference ("libertas ecclesiae"). By challenging the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV's (r. 1084–1105) right to appoint church officials, Gregory began the Investiture Controversy, a struggle for supremacy between the Church and the secular monarchies of Europe.
As medieval Europe became perhaps the first society in human history to build an economy on nonhuman power, land under cultivation and the number of towns grew together in northern and central Europe. Central Europe alone saw some three thousand new towns founded between the eleventh and early fourteenth centuries. By 1250, robust population increase had brought the economy to levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. Beginning in the 13th century, the Hanseatic League, a commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe, grew to dominate maritime trade in the Baltic and North seas in the following century. Northern European glassworks grew by producing less expensive window glass from wood ashes while Venetian artisans specialized in the more expensive clear soda-lime glass for luxury products that later enabled the 13th century invention of spectacles. Medieval engineers produced the first weight-driven mechanical clocks around the same time and every city in Europe soon possessed at least one. Historical demographers estimate that sustained growth during the High Middle Ages – enabled by a thriving north-south "bipolar urban network" and major breakthroughs in technology - pushed Europe's population beyond the peak levels reached during the era of the Roman Empire.
The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village, and even religion were broken amid the horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men than we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor.
Despite these crises, a great effort to rediscover and revive the cultural achievements of classical antiquity began in 14th-century Florence, spread across Italy and Europe, and transformed art, architecture, and literature. Renaissance humanists, including several 15th- and 16th-century popes, perceived their repossession of a lost past as a rebirth of civilization.
From a single location in the Free Imperial City of Mainz in the 1450s, movable type printing had spread to about 270 cities across Europe and produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. Just 25 miles away, the Frankfurt Book Fair was established by 1462 and remained the primary marketplace for printers and publishers and the center of Europe's book trade for the next two centuries. By the 16th century, the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, had begun to give way to a printing culture where living scholars could compare their own observations with those of other (living) scholars, transforming how knowledge was created, preserved and disseminated.
Portugal forged the first global empire, but by the late 16th century, the Hispanic Monarchy (incorporating Portugal from 1580 to 1640) had become the world's largest empire, with silver from its American colonies accounting for at least twenty percent of its total revenue. Epidemics of smallpox and other Eurasian diseases swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of the Americas. While Spain dominated the Americas and controlled the Philippines, in the 17th and 18th centuries Spanish dominance was challenged by the Netherlands, France and Britain. With a plantation economy fueled by slave labor, Saint-Domingue – the "Pearl of the Antilles" – was the richest colony in the 18th-century French empire. Europe's colonial plantation economies were sustained by the Atlantic slave trade, which forcibly transported 12 million enslaved Africans to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries.
The diffusion of New World crops during the Columbian exchange reshaped Europe. Maize arrived first and spread swiftly through the Mediterranean and Balkans in the 16th century while the potato spread far more slowly in northern Europe. The higher and more reliable caloric yield per acre of both crops altered the peasant diet and contributed to the retreat of recurrent famine and to European population growth and urbanization.
A peasant begs for mercy in front of his burning farm. By the 1630s, being caught in the open by soldiers from either side was "tantamount to a death sentence".
During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), entire regions of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries, the Crown of Bohemia and northern parts of Italy were scavenged bare by foraging armies, causing widespread famine, while bankrupting many of the states involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation as social order disintegrated. Between 4 and 8 million people died due to the war, the vast majority being civilians, making it the most devastating European conflict until the 20th century. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ending the war guaranteed the right to practice Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism as well as the independence of the religiously tolerant Dutch Republic, which established a safe haven for European Jews.
Galileo Galilei reported in the Starry Messenger (1610) that he saw at least ten times more stars through a telescope than are visible to unaided vision.
The upheaval of the Scientific Revolution ended the medieval view of natural philosophy as the servant (or "handmaiden") of theology. As natural philosophy continued to grow in power, self-confidence and independence during the 17th century, the intellectual attitude of educated people shifted from fides quaerens intellectum toward a mode of understanding increasingly detached from religion. The "New Science" that emerged by the end of the century broke sharply with the natural philosophy that had preceded it, departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions, was more mechanistic in its worldview and more integrated with mathematics, and was obsessed with the acquisition and interpretation of new evidence.
The five great European powers that emerged in the 18th century – Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom – formed the Concert of Europe that dominated European politics in the 19th century and up to World War I.
The Industrial Revolution was the most significant transition in human civilization since the Agricultural Revolution. It was the first breakthrough from an agrarian, handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture, initiating unprecedented, cumulative and self-sustaining advances in technology and economic productivity during which Western Europe definitively emerged as the world's most powerful civilization, eclipsing all of its Eurasian rivals.
Originating in Britain in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of textile manufacturing, advancements in iron-making and increased use of coal, it subsequently spread to Western Europe. Technological advancements, most notably the steam engine, accelerated and sustained the industrialisation process. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.
The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world.
The Industrial Revolution was the first time population and per-person income rose simultaneously. Europe's population increased from 100million in 1700 to 400million by 1900.
At the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), the great European powers agreed to massive territorial changes in Central and Eastern Europe and to maintain a European balance of power, initially intended to be managed with regular meetings between them.
Governments increasingly took control of both education and marriage away from churches, abolished taxes and tithes for the support of established religions, and excluded bishops from legislative bodies. In France, hostility to the Catholic Church became a major issue and in Germany in the 1870s there was a fierce Kulturkampf (culture war) against Catholics. Notwithstanding these conflicts and tensions, however, the last decades of the long 19th century – sometimes known as the Belle Époque (1871–1914) – were characterised by unusual political stability in Western and Central Europe. With the notable exception of the Russian Empire, all of Europe's major powers had become constitutional monarchies or republics. For many Europeans, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire had the advantage of size and a large army but rising nationalism acted as a powerful centrifugal force that strained the multi-ethnic fabric of the Empire, fostering internal dissent and demands for self-determination that progressively undermined the stability of Habsburg rule. In the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Hungarian nationalists battled Austria only finally losing when Russia sent some 200,000 troops to restore Habsburg rule. Russia also crushed large nationalist revolts in Congress Poland in 1830 and 1863–64 and attempted to "Russify" Polish language, culture and religion.
Nationalism stimulated the emergence of national educational systems that prioritized the study of national heritage, national language, and patriotic identity over historical accuracy. Compulsory elementary education became standard in Germany and then across Western Europe and then was extended to girls. By the 1890s, strong movements emerged in some countries, including France and Germany, to extend compulsory education to the secondary level.
Pushed by both poverty and the displacement of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing, 20% of Europe's rapidly growing population – 65 million people – emigrated between 1815 and 1939, primarily to the United States, Argentina, Canada and Brazil:
In 1800, less than 1% of the world population consisted of overseas Europeans and their descendants but by the eve of World War I 38% of the world's total population was of European ancestry.
Although poverty remained pervasive, living standards for lower-class Europeans rose steadily as the century progressed. Wages increased, housing and diets improved, and working hours fell.
At the beginning of the 20th century two rival alliances of European great powers – the Triple Alliance of the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and Kingdom of Italy and the Triple Entente of the French Republic, Russian Empire and United Kingdom (Great Britain) – opposed each other and were committed to come to the aid of their alliance partners. In 1914, Austria-Hungary threatened the Kingdom of Serbia. In response, Russia mobilized to threaten Austria. Germany then mobilized to threaten Russia and preemptively strike France through Belgium while Britain declared war after Germany violated Belgian neutrality.
The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism. As early as 1917, however, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but succeeded in Russia. During the 1920s, democratic institutions were dismantled in Italy, Albania, Poland, Portugal, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.
After the Wall Street crash of 1929, most of the world sank into a Great Depression; prices and profits fell and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two-thirds.
Marshall Plan payments to European countries, 1948–1952
The victors of World War II divided Europe into spheres of influence, with a Western Bloc and an Eastern Bloc of countries opposing each other in the Cold War. The United States donated about $20billion in Marshall Plan grants and other funding to Western Europe between 1945 and 1951. The Soviet Union, concentrating on its own recovery, seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from, and imposed unfair trading arrangements on, eastern European countries under its control.
The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies established the NATO military alliance in 1949. With the aim of uniting and defending Western Europe, first steps toward economic and political integration began with the Council of Europe (1949–), the European Coal and Steel Community (1952–2002) and European Economic Community (1958–1993). The Soviet Union and its satellites established the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
The peak period of European decolonization occurred in the two decades following World War II. During this window, European colonial powers began a rapid withdrawal from their overseas territories, starting with major Asian nations like India (1947) and Indonesia (1949). In the "Year of Africa" (1960), 17 African nations gained independence in a single year.
After decades of economic growth and an increase in the standard of living of its working class, Western Europe experienced industrial decline, oil-fueled inflation and recession in the 1970s. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring while Britain implemented aggressive austerity and privatization.
1200 BC: Late Bronze Age collapse begins, that may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow spread of ironworking technology from present-day Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC.
597: Beginning of Roman Catholic Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England (missions and churches had been in existence well before this date, but their contacts with Rome had been loose or nonexistent)
722: Battle of Covadonga in the Iberian Peninsula. Pelayo, a noble Visigoth, defeats a Muslim army that tried to conquer the Cantabrian coast. This helps establish the Christian Kingdom of Asturias, and marks the beginning of the Reconquista.
732: At the Battle of Tours, the Franks stop the advance of the Arabs into Europe.
1699: Treaty of Karlowitz concludes the Austro-Ottoman War. This marks the end of Ottoman control of Central Europe and the beginning of Ottoman stagnation, establishing the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power in Central and Southeastern Europe.
1700: Outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War. The first would check the aspirations of Louis XIV, king of France to dominate European affairs; the second would lead to Russia's emergence as a great power and a recognizably European state.
18th century: Age of Enlightenment spurs an intellectual renaissance across Europe.
1895: Auguste and Louis Lumière begin exhibitions of projected films before the paying public with their cinematograph, a portable camera, printer, and projector.
1902: Guglielmo Marconi sends first transatlantic radio transmission.
1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires.
1918: Collapse of the German Empire and monarchic system; founding of Weimar Republic.
1918: Worldwide Spanish flu epidemic kills millions in Europe.
1918: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves.
1919: Versailles Treaty strips Germany of its colonies, several provinces and its navy and air force; limits army; Allies occupy western areas; reparations ordered.
1920: League of Nations begins operations; largely ineffective; defunct by 1939.
1921–22: Ireland divided; Irish Free State becomes independent and civil war erupts.
1947: The British Empire begins a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan.
1947: Cold War begins as Europe is polarized East versus West.
1948–1951: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the Marshall Plan; stimulates large-scale modernization of European industries and reduction of trade restrictions.
1989: Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev refuses to use military force when a free Polish election is overwhelmingly won by non-Communist candidates. Communism overthrown in all the Warsaw Pact countries except the Soviet Union. Fall of the Berlin Wall (opening of unrestrained border crossings between east and west, which effectively deprived the wall of any relevance).
↑The portrait was painted by Tommaso da Modena. Tommaso trained in Venice and worked mostly in Northern Italy.
↑Ancient DNA research indicates that the earliest modern humans in Europe during the Initial Upper Paleolithic (~45–40 kya) were part of the broader early expansion of Homo sapiens from Eurasia. Genetic data show that some early European individuals represent lineages that left little or no detectable ancestry in later European populations.
↑The Ertebølle combined specialized fishing and hunting kits, pottery, shell-midden settlements, and a mix of year-round and seasonal occupation that gave them a semi-sedentary character even as many inland groups retained a more mobile, microlith-based way of life.
12"Yamnaya" (ямная) is a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits' (яма, yama). Steppe-derived populations such as the Yamnaya are thought to have brought lactase persistence to Europe and it is hypothesized that it may have given them a biological advantage over the European populations who lacked it.
↑The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics (the "Nobel Prize" for math) features a portrait of Archimedes, along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which reads in Latin: Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri ("Rise above oneself and grasp the world").
↑Old English was first written using Anglo-Saxon runes in the 5th century. In 597, the arrival of the Gregorian mission in Kent marked the beginning of the Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England, and with it the reintroduction of the Latin alphabet to Britain, where it was used to write English for the first time. The earliest attested instances of Old English being written using the Latin script were in Anglo-Saxon law codes, including the Law of Æthelberht, drawn up in 616 on behalf of King Æthelberht of Kent.
↑The most organized and legally sophisticated Germanic Latin Christian kingdom of the era.
↑The adjective "Byzantine", derived from Byzantion (Byzantium in Latin), the name of the Greek settlement on which Constantinople was founded, originally referred only to the inhabitants of the city. Its usage began to broaden when Theodore Metochites and Laonikos Chalkokondyles employed "Byzantine" to denote the people of the empire as a whole; a development later widely propagated by Hieronymus Wolf. However, it was not until the mid-19th century that historians began systematically applying "Byzantines" to the empire's inhabitants, and the term is now regarded by many scholars as contentious. For most of the preceding millennium, the "Byzantines" were more commonly described as "Greeks".
↑Including Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604), known as "St. Gregory the Great" and one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers, who served as an ambassador to Constantinople for 7 years before becoming the bishop of Rome.
The interests of popes - whose parish of Western Europe was almost entirely outside of the Empire - and Byzantine emperors increasingly diverged. Conflicts during the Byzantine Papacy caused the downfall of several bishops of Rome. Pope Silverius (r. 536–537) was exiled by a Byzantine general during the Gothic War, Pope Vigilius (r. 537–555) was arrested and brought to Constantinople, Pope Martin I (r. 649–655) was banished to the Crimea, and Pope Sergius I (r. 687–701) only narrowly avoided removal when local troops prevented his abduction by imperial authorities.
↑Byzantine Emperor Leo III (r. 717-741) confiscated all property of the Latin Church in south Italy and Sicily in 732/33, together constituting most of the Church's income at the time. He further removed the bishoprics of Thessalonica, Corinth, Syracuse, Reggio, Nicopolis, Athens, and Patras from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, instead subjecting them to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In effect, the Latin Church had been "cast out of the empire". Pope Zachary (r. 741-752) was the last bishop of Rome to announce his election to or seek approval from a Byzantine authority.
↑The majority of Orthodox Slavs adopted Cyrillic, while most Catholic Slavs adopted Latin but there were many exceptions to this general rule. In areas where both Churches were proselytising to pagan Europeans, such as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Croatian Duchy and the Principality of Serbia, mixtures of languages, scripts and alphabets emerged, and the lines between Latin Catholic (Latinitas) and Cyrillic Orthodox literacy (Slavia Orthodoxa) were blurred.
↑Slavery was a major economic activity. Norse raiders seized captives across the British Isles and from central and eastern Europe, establishing Viking-ruled Dublin as Western Europe's largest slave market and linking the Baltic to the Black Sea via river trade. While both Christians and Muslims banned the enslavement of people of their own faith, both approved of the enslavement of the other. They also both approved of enslaving pagans and pagans from Eastern Europe - who could be sold to Christians, Muslims or other pagans - became the most lucrative choice for slave traders. Arabic silver dirhams, presumably exchanged for slaves, are plentiful in eastern Europe and Southern Sweden, indicating trade routes from Slavic to Muslim territory.
12In 859, a major long-distance Viking expedition, under the command of Björn Ironside and Hásteinn, set out for Spain from their base on the Loire with the objective of sacking the city of Rome. They tried to land at Galicia and were driven off. Then they sailed down the west coast of the peninsula and burned the mosque at Seville, but were repelled by a large Muslim force there before entering the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar and burning the mosque at Algeciras, following which they headed south to Nekor on the coast of Morocco, plundered the city and defeated a Muslim force that attempted to stop them. According to an account by the Norman monk Dudo of Saint-Quentin, the Viking fleet landed at the Ligurian port of Luni and sacked the city. The Vikings then moved another 60 miles down the Tuscan coast to the mouth of the Arno, sacking Pisa and then, following the river upstream, also the hill-town of Fiesole above Florence.
↑According to historian Anders Winroth, Christianity was adopted by Scandinavian kings who saw the religion as politically advantageous. Starting with a declaration by Harald Bluetooth (r. c. 958 – c. 986) around AD 965, Denmark was the first Scandinavian country to Christianize. The conversion of Scandinavian kings to Christianity was complete by 1020.
↑All of the bishops in Germany (who supported the Emperor) assembled in 1061 and declared all the decrees of Nicholas II null and void. Nevertheless, the election of Pope Alexander II (by six cardinal-bishops) proceeded that year without the involvement of the Emperor. (Alexander was another reformer.)
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↑The Concordat of Worms (1122) between the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire regulated the procedure for the appointment of bishops and abbots in the Empire.
↑From the 8th until the 15th century, Venice held a monopoly on the spice trade with the Middle East. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000tons of other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.
↑The first eyeglasses were made in central Italy, most likely in Pisa or Florence, by about 1290, after which the widespread manufacture and use of optical glass for eyeglasses expanded rapidly in Europe. Venice became an important center of colorless glass manufacture by 1300.
↑The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc". As urban town life and medieval guilds developed, specialized associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights (these rights were usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes, prelates, or their towns) became denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members.
↑Bettisia Gozzadini (1209-1261) earned a law degree in 1237, being one of the first women in history to obtain a university degree. She taught law from her own home for two years, and in 1239 she taught at the university, becoming the first woman in history to teach at a university.
↑Oxford masters were recognised as a universitas or corporation in 1231.
↑By 1500, Europe had 64 universities. No matter where they were located, however, Latin was used.
↑Conquered regions that included eastern Europe were later known as the Golden Horde. Contemporary sources employed several different dynastic and geographical designations. Persian sources, including the Jami' al-tawarikh, used "Ulus of Jochi" (Persian Ulūs-i Jūchī) for the Jochid realm. Islamic geographical and historical literature also continued to use the older regional designation "Dasht-i Qipchaq" (Persian: دشت قپچاق, "Qipchaq Steppe"), while Latin sources used "Comania" or "Cumania" for parts of the same wider steppe region.
↑During the Hundred Years' War, five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of France, then the wealthiest and most populous kingdom in Western Europe. The war had a lasting effect on European history: both sides produced innovations in military technology and tactics, including professional standing armies and artillery, that permanently changed European warfare. Despite the devastation on its soil, the century of off-and-on warfare accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state. French kings' demands for consistent and permanent taxation for financing standing armies overcame the opposition of the French nobility, vastly increasing French state capability.
↑The Ottoman Empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in c.1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14thcentury, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire.
↑Commonly cited breaks with the medieval period between 1450 and 1500 include the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire, the spread of printing and European voyages of discovery to America and along the African coast.
↑The expedition was funded mostly by King Charles I of Spain, with the hope that it would discover a profitable western route to the Spice Islands, as the eastern route was controlled by Portugal under the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. Upon arrival at Cape Verde, the crew was surprised to learn that the ship's date of 9 July 1522 was one day behind the local date of 10 July 1522, even though they had recorded every day of the three-year journey without omission. Cardinal Gasparo Contarini was the first European to give a correct explanation of the discrepancy.
↑The Dutch were leading innovators in shipbuilding and seafaring techniques in the 16th century. Dutch expeditions reached Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.
↑The first French colonial empire stretched to over 10,000,000km2 (3,900,000sqmi) at its peak in 1710, which was the second largest colonial empire in the world, after the Spanish Empire.
↑Britain began seizing control of parts of North America in the 17th century, and expanded its control into India and Australasia during the 18th century.
↑Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe, more than all of Britain's West Indian colonies combined.
↑Of these, up to 2 million died during the voyage.
↑By the 17th century, maize was a common peasant food in Southern Europe. By the 18th century, it was the chief food of the southern French and Italian peasantry, especially as polenta in Italy.
↑Potatoes yielded about three times the calories per acre of wheat or barley, mainly because it took only 3–4 months to mature versus 10 months for wheat. On top of this, potatoes had higher nutritive value than wheat, could be grown in even fallow and nutrient-poor soil, did not require any special tools, and were considered fairly appetising. A single acre of potatoes could feed a family of five or six, plus a cow, for the better part of a year, an unprecedented level of production. By 1715 the potato was widespread in the Low Countries, the Rhineland, southwestern Germany, and eastern France, but took longer to spread elsewhere.
↑The modern consensus is that the population of the Holy Roman Empire declined from 18 to 20 million in 1600 to 11–13 million in 1650, and did not regain pre-war levels until 1750.
↑In Aristotle's cosmology, Earth was the realm of imperfection, inconstancy, irregularity, and change while the heavens (Moon, Sun, planets, stars) were perfect, permanent, unchangeable and, in religious thought, the realm of heavenly beings.
↑No European state exceeded it in population or could match its wealth and professional army.
↑Philip II of Spain defaulted on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. Subsequent Spanish kings defaulted six more times in the next 65 years.
↑Russia boasted a large and powerful army and a large and complex bureaucracy but throughout the 18th century it remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country."
↑When the King used soldiers to lock them out of their meeting place, they instead met in a nearby indoor tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath to stay united until a constitution was established.
↑Involving 560,000 soldiers, 2,200 artillery pieces, the expenditure of 400,000 rounds of artillery ammunition, and 133,000 casualties, the Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of the Nations, was the single largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
↑The formal "Congress System" fell apart in the 1820s but peace between the Great Powers continued until the Crimean War (1853-1856). Occasional meetings reminiscent of the Congresses continued to be held at times of crisis.
↑Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing European economies and preventing communist invasions or political takeovers. Economic historians Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen argue that American aid was more significant for long-term growth than short-term recovery.
↑The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO.
↑Hypertext Transfer Protocol ("HTTP") is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, where hypertext documents include hyperlinks to other resources that the user can easily access, for example by a mouse click or by tapping the screen in a web browser.
↑CERN made the Web protocol and code available royalty-free on 30 April 1993, enabling its widespread use.
↑Imposed on debtor nations like Greece as a condition for bailouts but also adopted voluntarily by creditor nations (including Germany and the United Kingdom).
↑Fu, Qiaomei (2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature. 534 (7606): 200–205. Bibcode:2016Natur.534..200F. doi:10.1038/nature17993. PMC4943878. PMID27135931. Beginning with the Villabruna Cluster at least ~14,000 years ago, all European individuals analyzed show an affinity to the Near East. This correlates in time to the Bølling-Allerød interstadial, the first significant warming period after the Ice Age. Archaeologically, it correlates with cultural transitions within the Epigravettian in Southern Europe and the Magdalenian-to-Azilian transition in Western Europe. Thus, the appearance of the Villabruna Cluster may reflect migrations or population shifts within Europe at the end of the Ice Age, an observation that is also consistent with the evidence of turnover of mitochondrial DNA sequences at this time. One scenario that could explain these patterns is a population expansion from southeastern European or west Asian refugia after the Ice Age, drawing together the genetic ancestry of Europe and the Near East. Sixth, within the Villabruna Cluster, some, but not all, individuals have affinity to East Asians. An important direction for future work is to generate similar ancient DNA data from southeastern Europe and the Near East to arrive at a more complete picture of the Upper Paleolithic population history of western Eurasia
↑Rowley-Conwy, Peter (1983). "Sedentary hunters: the Ertebølle example". In Bailey, Geoff (ed.). Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.111–126. ISBN978-0521237420.
↑Wilkin, Shevan; etal. (15 September 2021). "Dairying enabled Early Bronze Age Yamnaya steppe expansions". Nature. 598 (7882): 629–633. Bibcode:2021Natur.598..629W. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03798-4. ISSN1476-4687. PMC8550948. PMID34526723. The triad of animal traction, dairying and horse domestication appears to have had an instrumental role in transforming Pontic–Caspian economies and opening up the broader steppe to human habitation by the Early Bronze Age. If some or even all of these elements were present before the Bronze Age, it is only from this latter period that we witness their intensive and sustained exploitation amongst numerous groups. Although other factors will no doubt also have been important, the emergence of more mobile, pastoralist societies adapted to survival on the cold and arid steppe—where horses may have opened up snow-covered pasturage for other animals, and milk would have provided a sustained source of protein, nutrients and fluids—was undoubtedly critical to the expansion of Bronze Age pastoralists such the Yamnaya groups.
↑"When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved". Scientific American. 1 July 2020. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2026. For 150 years scholars debated whether the farmers brought their Neolithic culture from the Middle East to Europe or whether it was only their ideas that traveled. In the early 2000s, however, geneticists such as Martin Richards, then at the University of Oxford, and others studied patterns of variation in modern genes to provide irrefutable proof that the farmers came—streaming across the Aegean Sea and the Bosporus to reach Greece and the Balkan Peninsula, respectively. From there they spread north and west.
↑Curry, Andrew (August 2019). "The first Europeans weren't who you might think". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Three waves of immigrants settled prehistoric Europe. The last, some 5,000 years ago, were the Yamnaya, horse-riding cattle herders
↑"Ancient Crete". Oxfordbibliographiesonline.com. 15 February 2010. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
↑Tandy, David W. (2001). Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Black Rose Books Limited. p.2. ISBN978-1-55164-188-1. The strongest evidence for Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on the Ionian coast known from ancient sources as Glykys Limin.
↑The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC III, Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28 May – 1 June 2003
↑Emilio Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in early Latium, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980
↑Cline, Eric H. (2014). 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press. pp.xx + 237. ISBN978-0-691-14089-6.
12See A. Stoia and the other essays in M.L. Stig Sørensen and R. Thomas, eds., The Bronze Age: Iron Age Transition in Europe (Oxford) 1989, and T.A. Wertime and J.D. Muhly, The Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven) 1980.
↑McLaughlin, Raoul (11 September 2014). The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen & Sword. ISBN9781473840959.
↑McLaughlin, Raoul (11 November 2016). The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy & the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia & Han China. Pen & Sword. ISBN9781473889811.
↑Josiah Ober, The Rise and Fall of Classical Greece (2015) Princeton University Press.[pageneeded][ISBNmissing]
↑Bunt, Lucas Nicolaas Hendrik; Jones, Phillip S.; Bedient, Jack D. (1988). The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics. Dover. p.142.
↑"Fields Medal". The University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
↑Riehm, C. (2002). "The early history of the Fields Medal"(PDF). Notices of the AMS. 49 (7): 778–782. The Latin inscription from the Roman poet Manilius surrounding the image may be translated 'To pass beyond your understanding and make yourself master of the universe.' The phrase comes from Manilius's Astronomica 4.392 from the first century A.D. (p. 782).
↑"The Fields Medal". Fields Institute for Research in Mathematical Sciences. 5 February 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
↑Mlodinow, Leonard (2001). Euclid's Window: The Story of Geometry from Parallel Lines to Hyperspace. New York: Free Press. p.45. ISBN0-684-86523-8. As Rome conquered Greece, the Romans became custodians to the Greek legacy. The inheritors of the Greek tradition conquered much of the world and with it, faced many technical and engineering problems, yet their emperors did not support mathematics as did Alexander or the Ptolemys of Egypt, and their civilization did not produce mathematical minds such as Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. In the 1,100 years of their recorded existence, dating from 750 B.C., history does not mention one Roman theorem proved, nor even one Roman mathematician...In abstract mathematics, the Romans were ignorant, and proud of it.
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. p.35. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. Though not himself a Christian, Constantine attributed to the God of the Christians and the sign of the cross, which he had seen in a dream the night before, the victory in the decisive battle which was to bring him to the imperial throne. To the great delight of Christians, in 313 this cool master of realpolitik, with his coregent, Licinius, granted unlimited freedom of religion to the whole empire. In 315 the punishment of crucifixion was abolished, and in 321 Sunday was introduced as a legal festival and the church was allowed to accept legacies.
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. p.36. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. When the emperor Constantine saw a spiritual split threatening the unity of the empire which had just been united politically under his sole rule, in 325 he convened the council in Nicaea. All the bishops of the empire could and did use the imperial postal service to attend. But it was the emperor who had the say at the council; the bishop of Rome was not even invited.
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. pp.37–38. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. It was the emperor Theodosius the Great, a strictly orthodox Spaniard, who at the end of the fourth Christian century decreed a general ban on all pagan cults and sacrificial rites...That made Christianity now formally the state religion, the Catholic Church the state church, and heresy a crime against the state...What a revolution! In less than a century the persecuted church had become a persecuting church...For the first time now Christians killed other Christians...Above all the Jews came under pressure. The proud Roman Hellenistic state church hardly remembered its own Jewish roots anymore.
↑"J. B. Bury: History of the Later Roman Empire • Vol. 1 Chap. IX". penelope.uchicago.edu. The fact of the embassy cannot be doubted. The distinguished ambassadors visited the Hun's camp near the south shore of Lake Garda. It is also certain that Attila suddenly retreated. But we are at a loss to know what considerations were offered him to induce him to depart.
12Grant, Edward (1971). Physical Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. pp.10, 12. ISBN9780521292948. Taken together, [the Latin encyclopedias] contained virtually the sum total of general scientific fact and comprehension through the early Middle Ages. They confronted subsequent authors with an unsystematic, chaotic, and conflicting mass of frequently irreconcilable and incomprehensible information above which few could rise until new scientific learning became available from Arabic and Greek sources...Isidore and his fellow encyclopedists deserve our gratitude for a valiant attempt to preserve and comprehend the tattered remnants of ancient science. But there is no denying that a scientific dark age had descended upon western Europe.
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. pp.35–38. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. In the centuries following the fall of Rome, three improvements vastly increased the efficiency of horses. The first was the nailed horseshoe...[which] was especially useful in the moist soils prevalent north of the Alps and for the heavier horses used in the later Middle Ages...The second important improvement was the invention of the stirrup...By increasing the stability and comfort of the ride, the stirrup made the horse an increasingly important part of European transportation. Finally, the third important innovation was the modern horse collar...errors in the most basic applications of animate power that the sophisticated civilizations of the Mediterranean had made for centuries were corrected in early medieval times...The importance of these improvements is underlined by the computation that by the late eleventh century, 70 percent of all energy consumed by English society came from animals, the rest coming from water mills...Where horses were truly indispensable, in addition to militay uses, was in land transportation. The increased speed and range of horse-pulled wagons, coupled with improvements in the design of the carts themselves, were instrumental in the revival of land transport and medium-distance trade.
↑Cameron, Averil (1993). "Urban changes and the end of Antiquity: The changing city". The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395–600. Routledge. pp.159ff. ISBN978-0415014212.
↑Gilian Clark, Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford 2011), pp. 1–2.
↑Metzger, Bruce (2005). The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4thed.). Oxford University Press. p.8. Parchment...had a marked advantage over papyrus in its greater durability; moreover, it was better suited than papyrus for writing on both sides. It was at about the start of the fourth century A.D. that it began to take the place of papyrus in the manufacture of the best books, and the works considered worth preserving were gradually transferred from papyrus roll to parchment codex.
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. p.63. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. The rulers (whether the Goth Theodoric the Great, the Frank Charlemagne, or the Saxon Otto the Great) could not read or write; only the clergy could. Only they could hand on the ancient literature and in time create a new written culture.
↑Markus, R. A. (1997). Gregory the Great and His World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.95. ISBN0-521-58608-9. A very considerable part of Gregory's concerns...fell outside the limits of the Empire and the imperial church: his interest in the churches in the Germanic kingdoms of Western Europe, now in fact firmly independent of the Empire...Gregory saw them within a Byzantine perspective, generally equating them with high Byzantine officials, as they would have been seen by the government in Constantinople.
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. p.67. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. Pope Gregory the Great...was the first pope to recognize the latent creative powers of the Germanic peoples and extended his sphere of action northward and westward to France, to the Spanish kingdom of the West Goths, and especially to Britain, a land which became one of those most loyal to the pope.
↑Henrich, Joseph Patrick (2020). The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous (Firsted.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p.57. ISBN978-0-374-17322-7. ...the medieval Catholic Church inadvertently altered people's psychology by promoting a peculiar set of prohibitions and prescriptions about marriage and the family that dissolved the densely interconnected clans and kindreds in western Europe into small, weak and disparate nuclear families. The social and psychological shifts induced by this transformation fueled the proliferation of voluntary associations, including guilds, charter towns, and universities, drove the expansion of impersonal markets, and spurred the rapid growth of cities. By the High Middle Ages, catalyzed by these ongoing changes, WEIRDer ways of thinking, reasoning, and feeling propelled the emergence of novel forms of law, government, and religion while accelerating innovation and the emergence of Western science.
↑Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"". In Aschenbrenner, Nathanael; Ransohoff, Jake (eds.). The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe. Washington, D.C.: Harvard University Press. p.349. ISBN978-0-88402-484-2.
↑Magdalino, Paul (18 December 2025). "The Foundation of Constantinople and the Beginnings of Byzantine Studies". Études byzantines et post-byzantines. 7: 41–43. doi:10.66292/ebpb.2025.02. ISSN0259-0913.
↑Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"". In Aschenbrenner, Nathanael; Ransohoff, Jake (eds.). The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe. Washington, D.C.: Harvard University Press. p.352. ISBN978-0-88402-484-2.
↑Kaldellis, Anthony (31 May 2024). The Case for East Roman Studies. Arc Humanities Press. p.9. ISBN978-1-80270-254-5.
↑McEvedy 1980, p.40: "The fall of the West had freed the Pope from subordination to an Emperor and it had made his parish international. When Justinian re-occupied Rome he proceeded to depose a Pope who did not toe the Imperial line, and it looked as though the old days had returned. But the bulk of the Roman see, and therefore of Papal activity, still lay outside the Empire, and the Papacy kept much of the autonomy it had gained. As the distance between Constantinople and Rome further reduced the possibility of interference, the Pope did not have to follow the twists of Imperial diplomacy as did the Patriarch of Constantinople. In consequence the comparatively unwavering course of the Papacy made it appear even to the East a truer fount of religion than the Patriarchate that functioned as a state department."
↑Markus, R. A. (1997). Gregory the Great and His World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.204. ISBN0-521-58608-9. The submergence of African Christianity meant the loss to the Latin Church of an intellectually creative and vigorous regional Church. But this loss meant even more, and was in the long run even more subtly damaging to the Roman see itself; for North African Christianity had its own traditions of independence to which it clung with a tenacity with which popes and emperors had to reckon. By losing Carthage, Rome, increasingly isolated from the Greek East, was also cut off from the one great Latin see which could be a focus of fruitful tension. Rome's world became radically simplified; and the Roman see emerged as the single, isolated, religious centre of the barbarian West. No longer enriched by the creative tensions between a number of great sees ringing the Mediterranean, cut off from Africa and, gradually, from the Eastern churches, the Roman Church became the unchallenged mistress and teacher of the Western Germanic nations. And they were only too willing to learn.
↑Pirenne 2014: "The Mediterranean had been a Roman lake; it now became, for the most part, a Moslem lake. From this time on it separated, instead of uniting, the East and the West of Europe. The tie which was still binding the Byzantine Empire to the Germanic kingdoms of the West was broken."
↑Pirenne 2014: "Thanks to her insular situation, the conquerors who successively overran the peninsula - first the Lombards, then Charlemagne, and finally, still later, the German emperors – were not successful in their attempts to gain possession. [Venice] remained, therefore, under the sovereignty of Constantinople, thus forming at the upper end of the Adriatic and at the foot of the Alps an isolated outpost of Byzantine civilization. While Western Europe was detaching herself from the east, she continued to be part of it. And this circumstance is of capital importance. The consequence was that Venice did not cease to gravitate in the orbit of Constantinople. Across the waters, she was subject to the attraction of that great city and herself grew great under its influence...By the eighth century she was devoting herself with greater and greater success to the provisioning of Constantinople. Her ships transported thither the products of the countries which were contiguous to her on the east and the west: wheat and wine from Italy, wood from Dalmatia, salt from the lagoons, and, in spite of the prohibitions of the Pope and the Emperor himself, slaves which she easily secured among the Slavic peoples of the shores of the Adriatic. Thence they brought back, in return, the precious fabrics of Byzantine manufacture, as well as spices which Asia furnished to Constantinople. By the tenth century the activity of the port had already attained extraordinary proportions."
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. pp.69–70. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. The second great blow against Byzantium was struck by Pippin's son Charles. On the pretext of a vacancy on the throne (in Byzantium a woman, Irene, was ruler), on Christmas Day 800, in St. Peter's, for the first time Pope Leo III took upon himself the right to crown the emperor: Charlemagne...was crowned by the pope autonomously with his own valuable crown as "emperor of the Romans" (and thus also of the East). What a provocation for Byzantium! For all at once there were now two Christian emperors, and in the West the Germanic emperor was increasingly regarded as the true and only legitimate one, because he had been anointed with holy oil by the pope himself.
↑McCormick, Michael (1 November 2002). "New Light on the 'Dark Ages': How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy". Past & Present (177): 17–54. doi:10.1093/past/177.1.17.
↑Murray 2010: "...the one western commodity much in demand across the Mediterranean from the eighth to the tenth centuries: slaves. Fragmentary records attest to both slave hunting and transport, with Anglo-Saxon slaves captured and conveyed to markets in southern France, northern Italy and Rome. Volume swelled under the Carolingians after 750, when conquests in central and eastern Europe brought heathen Slavs to market, leaving that name sclavus as the permanent marker of this source of captives. By the eighth century, Venice had become a great slave port, with Venetian traders serving as middlemen in the sale of slaves to southern and eastern Mediterranean markets."
↑Postan, M.M. (1966). The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire: Volume 1, Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p.249. ISBN9780521045056. Retrieved 20 August 2026. ...the Church resolutely refused to sanction the enslavement of Christians, true Christians, that is, Catholics...if a Christian captured another Christian he was obliged to respect his free status. Perhaps one of the finest triumphs of Christian ethics was the enforcement of respect for this maxim [that free Christians could not be enslaved], slowly to be sure, for it is still being recalled in England early in the eleventh century...
↑Korpela, Jukka (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Studies in Global Slavery. Vol.5. Leiden: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-37780-6.
↑Ballan, Mohammad (2010). "Fraxinetum: An Islamic Frontier State in Tenth-Century Provence". Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 41: 23–76. doi:10.1353/cjm.2010.0053. By 939 the Andalusis had managed to cross the Alps and raided what is today northern Italy as well as southern Switzerland, where they attacked the renowned monastery of St. Gall. They established numerous fortresses—which Latin chroniclers in the raided regions all called Fraxinetum or some variation of the name (Frassineto, Frascendello, etc.) – thus facilitating their domination of Provence and the Rhone Valley. From their principal base at Fraxinetum, the Muslims extended their raids into Alemannia and Rhaetia in the North, Grenoble in the West, and Lombardy in the East...It was during the period of its control of the Alpine passes that Fraxinetum reached its peak, and the raids by the Andalusis became the most destructive and deadly; according to Latin chroniclers, the Muslims sacked numerous monasteries and indiscriminately killed hundreds of pilgrims on their way to Rome.
↑Heebøll-Holm, Thomas K. (8 August 2021). "Piratical slave-raiding – the demise of a Viking practice in high medieval Denmark". Scandinavian Journal of History. 46 (4): 431–454. doi:10.1080/03468755.2020.1748106.
↑McEvedy 1980, p.50: "The Viking and Moslem marauders had already been active for a century when the Maygars arrived in Europe, but it was only then that the misery of Christendom became complete. Forced out of Russia by the Patzinaks (893), the Maygars occupied Hungary...Then their horsemen turned to raiding that was as rapid, widespread and savage as that of the sea-borne pirates. The unhappy condition of the West at that time is well shown in the history of Burgundy, a state which would appear to be comparatively inaccessible, but which within half a century was raped by Viking, Moslem, and Magyar in turn."
↑Bowlus, Charles R. (2006). The Battle of Lechfeld and Its Aftermath, August 955: The End of the Age of Migrations in the Latin West. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN978-0-7546-5470-4.
↑Jordan 2001, pp.74–75: "...Stephen I (St. Stephen [997-1038]), the first fully Christian king, was consecrated in a ceremony on 1 January 1001 or perhaps a week earlier, on Christmas Day 1000, with a crown and other regalia, including a lance, sent from Rome that came with a joint blessing of the German emperor and the pope."
↑Winroth, Anders (2012). The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe. Yale University Press. pp.161–162. ISBN978-0-300-17026-9. JSTORj.ctt1nq59r.
↑Winroth, Anders (2012). The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe. Yale University Press. pp.104–118. ISBN978-0-300-17026-9. JSTORj.ctt1nq59r.
↑Jordan 2001, p.85: "Emperor Henry III (1039-56) was responsible for the election of his kinsman, Bruno of Egisheim, as Pope Leo IX in 1049..."
↑Jordan 2001, p.1: "The forty-seven-year-old Alsatian pilgrim Bruno of Egisheim, who made his way more than 600 miles from Worms to Rome in 1049 had only recently become Pope Leo IX. In the cortege with this future saint...is a group of earnest and purposeful companions, including Abbot Hugh of Cluny and a still little known Tuscan monk by the name of Hildebrand. These men, and a few others like them, had a conception of the universal Church, and of a universal Christian society (Christendom) that they would impose imperfectly but in grimly determined stages and with enormous consequences on the princes and bishops of the Catholic faithful."
↑Küng, Hans (2003). The Catholic Church: A Short History. Random House. p.81. ISBN978-0-8129-6762-3. Humbert was the shrewd champion of the Roman principle, which was the basis for the Roman system that soon took shape: The papacy was the source and norm of all law, its supreme authority, which could judge all but could not itself be judged by any...[the] church was related to the state as the sun is to the moon or the soul to the body or the head to the members.
↑Cowdrey, H. E. J. (2004). "The Structure of the Church 1024–1073". In Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4: c.1024–c.1098, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.229–230. ISBN978-0521414104.
↑Cushing, Kathleen G. (2005). Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century: Spirituality, Philanthropy, and Society. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p.95. ISBN978-0719058349.`
↑Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). "Great Schism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: University Press. ISBN978-0-19-280290-3.
↑Arnold Harris Mathew D.D. (1910). "Early life of Hildebrand". the Life and Times of Hildebrand. London: Francis Griffiths. p.20.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
↑McEvedy 1980, p.70: "Previously the Papal headship of the Western Church has been passive...Now Rome actively interfered with provincial affairs, extending its authority through the ramifications of the Church. The first phase of this incredibly rapid rejuvenation ended when the Roman laity was excluded from Papal elections, a move which was more than an attempt to place the Papacy out of reach of the turbulent local nobility. By limiting the right to vote to Cardinals, it denied the Emperor any part in the election and proclaimed the independence of Pope from State."
↑Goody, Jack (1983). The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe. Cambridge University Press. p.80. ISBN978-0-521-28925-2. Catholic priests...failed to separate themselves from their concubines, and even their wives, for many centuries. Matters changed with the ecclesiastical reforms of the eleventy century, directed as they were against the preponderance of familial and proprietary, of dynastic and political interests that interfered with the ecclesiastical tasks of the Church...It was only after 1073 with the actual accession to the papacy of Archdeacon Hildebrand...that the celibacy of the priesthood became widely accepted; the earlier papal efforts at reform, inspired by the teachings of the Italian hermit-monk, Peter Damian (1007-1072), had done little to achieve this end. But Gregory VII, as Hildebrand became, was determined to establish the priesthood as a hierarchical autocracy. To this end, the priest had to be a man set apart, superior to human frailties. Besides, Gregory had himself come from humble beginnings and the opportunity to rise in the Church would have been closed had the marriage of priests led to hereditary transmission of benefices...
↑Chadwick, Henry (1993) [1967]. The Early Church. The Penguin History of the Church. Vol.1 (Reviseded.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-14-023199-1.
↑Grzymala-Busse, Anna (2020). "Beyond War and Contracts: The Medieval and Religious Roots of the European State". Annual Review of Political Science. 23: 19–36. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032628. "...the Investiture Controversy was a sharp assertion of Church autonomy...and an emancipation of the Church from the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor...The conflict between the papacy and the monarchs persisted well beyond the Investiture Controversy. The Church continually pitted monarchs against each other and precluded the consolidation of any larger territorial or authority claims.
↑McEvedy 1980, p.62: "The Crusaders' blend of cupidity and fanaticism made them dangerous allies; their enthusiasm did not stem from sympathy for the hard-pressed Byzantines whom they regarded with suspicion, but from a desire to free the Holy Places from the Turks whose conversion to Islam was too recent for them to allow Christian pilgrimage as had the tolerant Fatimids."
↑McEvedy 1980, p.66: "...the general ill success of later Crusades followed the assumption of Crusading leadership by the Kings of Europe, who could spend but little time in the East and were no substitute for the land-hungry, nothing-to-lose baronage of the first Crusade."
↑Caraccioli, Mauro José (2021), "Narratives of Conquest and the Conquest of Narrative", Writing the New World, The Politics of Natural History in the Early Spanish Empire, University Press of Florida, pp.14–38, ISBN978-1-68340-170-4, JSTORj.ctv1gt9419.6, retrieved 11 September 2024, La Reconquista: a 700-year military and cultural campaign against the Moorish Caliphates of Southern Iberia that culminated in the joint reign of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile as Reyes Católicos.
↑McEvedy 1980, p.58: "Venice owed its rise to its political independence, the gift of its island sites; and to its shrewd acceptance of a formal Byzantine suzerainty under cover of which it was able to monopolize the East-West trade."
↑Jordan 2001, p.28: "Secure mercantile activity was essential for a city that exported salt produced from its lagoons, had an expanding glass industry, and marketed slaves...The greatest and preferred market was Constantinople...there was no other town remotely like it in 11th-century Europe. To assure access to Constantinople, Venice had to create a substantial navy and clear the Adriatic of pirates or re-employ them as slave raiders, a task largely accomplished by Doge Pietro Orseolo II (983–1008)."
12Mumford, Lewis (1963) [1934]. Technics and Civilization. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. p.125. ISBN978-0-15-688254-5. As early as 1300 pure colorless glass was made in Murano: a fact that is established by a law imposing a heavy punishment upon the utilization of ordinary glass for eye glasses.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Jordan 2001, p.28: "...during the central Middle Ages Genoa was an autonomous backwater. It became a major force in the western and central Mediterranean only in the late tenth century after a series of ferocious Muslim raids and incursions into the town early in the century had disrupted the traditional rhythms of the inhabitants' lives and prompted them to take concerted defensive and offensive action. Like Venice, Genoa rescued its economic situation by systematically building a fleet, pursuing pirates, destroying pirate lairs, and by making opportune alliances with other towns, such as Pisa, that took the war against the Muslims to the latter's own strongholds. The years 1015 and 1016 saw a spectacular string of Genoese victories at sea against the Muslims and the clearing-out of Muslim enclaves in Sardinia as well."
↑Pirenne 2014: "Lombardy, where from Venice on the east and Pisa and Genoa on the west all the commercial movements of the Mediterranean flowed and were blended into one, flourished with an extraordinary exuberance. On that wonderful plain cities bloomed with the same vigor as the harvests. The fertility of the soil made possible for them an unlimited expansion, and at the same time the ease of obtaining markets favored both the importation of raw materials and the exportation of manufactured products. There, commerce gave rise to industry, and as it developed, Bergamo, Cremona, Lodi, Verona, and all the old towns, all the old Roman municipia, took on new life, far more vigorous than that which had animated them in antiquity. Soon their surplus production and their fresh energy were seeking to expand abroad. In the south Tuscany was won. In the north new routes were laid out across the Alps. By the passes of the Splügen, St. Bernard and the Brenner, their merchants were to bring to the continent of Europe that same healthy stimulus which had come to them from the sea. They followed those natural routes marked by river courses—the Danube to the east, the Rhine to the north, and the Rhône to the west. In 1074 Italian merchants, undoubtedly Lombards, are made mention of at Paris; and at the beginning of the twelfth century the fairs of Flanders were already drawing a considerable number of their compatriots."
↑McEvedy 1980, p.72: "Among Western exports to the East, woolen goods predominated. These derived only in minor degree from the northern centres, most of them being produced in north Italy, where Florence and Milan supplied the eastern and southern markets. Their increasing capacity soon outran the local wool supplies, which had to be got from as far as England. By the twelfth century, silk production had begun in northern Italy. All the large towns had a wide range of supplementary manufactures, particularly Milan, famous for its metalwork. In the booming cities of Italy Western capitalism was reborn and a full money economy revived. The use of coinage spread to the country as the urban population demanded more grain and wealthy merchants bought estates. The feudal system disintegrated."
↑McEvedy 1980, p.68: "After half a century's struggle, north Italy successfully repudiated all control, and became a mosaic of city-states that only a legal fiction kept within the Empire."
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. pp.34–35. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. In waterpower, radical improvements came early. During the Merovingian and Carolingian eras (seventh to tenth centuries) better and bigger waterwheels spread through Europe...Medieval engineers made much progress in the construction of dams...They applied cams, and later cranks, to convert the circular motion of waterwheels into the reciprocating motion needed for hammering, fulling, and crushing...The crank was in all likelihood a medieval invention. The result was that the waterwheel was transformed from an occasional device used for grinding flour into a ubiquitous source of energy operating on rivers of every type. By about 1100, waterpower was used to drive fulling mills, breweries (to prepare beer mash), trip hammers, bellows, bark crushers, hemp treatment mills, cutlery grinders, wire drawers, and sawmills. In 1086, Domesday Book listed 5,624 watermills in England south of the Severn river, or roughly 1 for every 50 households. Unlike their Roman ancestors, medieval men and women were surrounded by water-driven machines doing the more arduous work for them...As Lynn White has remarked, medieval Europe was perhaps the first society to build an economy on nonhuman power rather than on the backs of slaves and coolies.
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. p.45. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. The first windmills that can be documented with certainty were in Yorkshire in 1185...within a few years windmills were used throughout Europe, and in 1195 the pope imposed a tithe on them...The windmill owed much to the water mill, from which it adopted its horizontal axle, gearing, and transmission machinery.
↑Jordan 2001, p.17: "....towns around the year 1000 were few in number and very small in size in Catholic Europe; yet, by the early fourteenth century the number and size of urban settlements has increased exponentially. The Rhineland, which had no more than eight towns well into the twelfth century, boasted more than fifty in the thirteenth. Central Europe, which had but the thinnest sprinkling of settlements that might be deemed urban in the year 1000, witnesses the creation of 1,500 new towns from the eleventh century up until 1250 and 1,500 more in the fifty years or so after that."
↑John H. Mundy, Europe in the high Middle Ages, 1150–1309 (1973) online
↑Ilardi, Vincent (2007). Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp.118–125. ISBN978-0-87169-259-7.
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. p.49. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. Of equal technical brilliance was the weight-driven mechanical clock. Its inventor is unknown, but its first appearance can be dated to the end of the thirteenth century...Clocks spread rapidly throughout Europe.
↑White, Lynn (1962). Medieval Technology and Social Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.124. ISBN978-0-19-500266-9. Suddenly, towards the middle of the fourteenth century, the mechanical clock seized the imagination of our ancestors. Something of the civic pride which earlier had expended itself in cathedral-building was diverted to the construction of astronomical clocks of astounding intricacy and elaboration. No European community felt able to hold up its head unless in its midst the planets wheeled in cycles and epicycles, while angels trumpeted, cocks crew, and apostles, kings, and prophets marched and countermarched at the booming of the hours.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Murray 2010: "...the urban map became more or less fixed by 1220, with two poles of intense urbanization, one in the European south, the other in the north...The sum of these changes is known in economic history as the "commercial revolution," which must be understood as the result of enterprise in the two distinct urban laboratories north and south; and more importantly as the result of the interaction of the two from the thirteenth century to the modern period. It can be fairly said that most of the innovations and hallmarks of European business and economic history were developed in this bipolar urban network..."
↑Seidel, Walter (2007). The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN9780521780537.
↑Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1966) [1879], A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press
↑Colish, Marcia L. (1997). Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400. New Haven, Connecticut, USA: Yale University Press. p.267.
↑Jacques Verger (16 October 2003). "Patterns". In Hilde de Ridder-Symoens; Walter Rüegg (eds.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol.1, Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p.35. ISBN9780521541138. It is no doubt true that other civilizations, prior to, or wholly alien to, the medieval West, such as the Roman Empire, Byzantium, Islam, or China, were familiar with forms of higher education which a number of historians, for the sake of convenience, have sometimes described as universities. Yet a closer look makes it plain that the institutional reality was altogether different and, no matter what has been said on the subject, there is no real link such as would justify us in associating them with medieval universities in the West. Until there is definite proof to the contrary, these latter must be regarded as the sole source of the model which gradually spread through the whole of Europe and then to the whole world.
↑Grant, Edward (2007). "Natural Philosophy after the Translations". A History of Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. p.144. ISBN978-052-1-68957-1. The key event that made the new intellectual life of Western Europe different than anything that had gone before is the emergence of the university as a unique and vital institution. Not only was it unique in the history of Western Europe, but it also was unique in the history of the world.
↑Murphy, Caroline P. (1999). "'In praise of the ladies of Bologna': the image and identity of the sixteenth-century Bolognese female patriciate". Renaissance Studies. 13 (4): 440–454. doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1999.tb00090.x. JSTOR24412719. PMID22106487.
↑Grant, Edward (2007). "Conclusion". A History of Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. p.324. ISBN978-052-1-68957-1. By 1500, there were approximately sixty-four active universities spread across Europe from Cracow in the East to Lisbon in the West; from Uppsala in the North to Catania in the South.
↑Hall 1970, p.2: "Learning had in Latin its own universal language. The system and content of education in every school and university were so similar that a scholar could find himself at home anywhere. In each the student laboured under the same texts, graduated by debating the similar philosophical themes, and (if he progressed as a man of learning) found the stimulus to original thinking in problems familiar to all men of education."
↑Grant, Edward (1971). Physical Science in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p.21. ISBN9780521292948. The required program of study at the universities of Paris and Oxford was not, as those unfamiliar with the Middle Ages may suppose, top-heavy with courses in theology and metaphysics. Rather, it was...essentially a program in logic and science. Never before, and not since, have logic and science formed the basis of higher education for all arts students.
↑Harrison & Lindberg 2011, p.75: "If the Christian Middle Ages truly possessed a scientific tradition, what did it accomplish scientifically?...for the first time in history a culture supported universities...permanent institutions sharing common curricula, turning out hundreds of thousands of students equipped epistemologically, methodologically, and mathematically to investigate the nature of the cosmos in which they lived."
↑Pow, Lindsey Stephen (27 September 2012). Deep ditches and well-built walls: a reappraisal of the mongol withdrawal from Europe in 1242 (Thesis). doi:10.11575/PRISM/25533. hdl:11023/232.[pageneeded]
↑Lee, Joo-Yup (2024). "Some Remarks on the Ulus (People) of Jochi as Seen by Their Contemporaries". Museum.kz. 2 (6): 53–54. doi:10.59103/muzkz.2024.06.07.
↑Borst, Arno (1992). Medieval Worlds: Barbarians, Heretics and Artists in the Middle Ages. University of Chicago Press. p.167. ISBN978-0-226-06656-1.
↑Lucas, Henry S. (1930). "The Great European Famine of 1315, 1316, and 1317". Speculum. 5 (4): 343–377. doi:10.2307/2848143. JSTOR2848143.
↑Mark Kishlansky et al. Civilization in the West: Volume 1 to 1715 (5th ed. 2003) p. 316
↑Guizot, Francois (1997). The History of Civilization in Europe; translated by William Hazlitt 1846. Indiana, US: Liberty Fund. pp.204, 205. ISBN978-0-86597-837-9.
↑Baten, Joerg; Keywood, Thomas; Wamser, Georg (2021). "Territorial State Capacity and Elite Violence from the 6th to the 19th century". European Journal of Political Economy. 70 102037. doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2021.102037. ISSN0176-2680. S2CID234810004.
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. p.49. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. ...in the 50 years following the invention more books were produced than in the preceding thousand years.
12Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009), "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, 69 (2): 409–445, doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. p.49. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. ...Johann Gutenberg's invention of moveable type (1453) was an achievement of profound brilliance, made possible inter alia by his knowledge of metallurgy (his father had been goldsmith to the Archbishop of Mainz). Casting the moveable type was a difficult problem: all letter units had to be of equal length and thickness but of varying width. The mechanical solution Gutenberg found - a mold consisting of two overlapping L-shaped parts - was ingenious. The type was made of an alloy of tin, zinc, and lead, while the molds were made of iron and copper.
↑Weidhaas, Peter (2007). A History of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Translated and edited by Carolyn Gossage and W. A. Wright. Toronto, Ontario: Dundurn Press. pp.11, 23–24. ISBN978-1-55002-744-0.
↑Wootton, David (2015). The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution. New York: Harper, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. p.282. ISBN978-0-06-175952-9. ...a manuscript culture, in which experience is unspecific, indirect, and amorphous...a print culture, in which experience is specific, direct, documented and retrievable...In comparison to the world of print, manuscript culture is one of rumour and gossip. The printing press represents an information revolution, and secure facts are its consequence.
↑Wootton, David (2015). The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution. New York: Harper, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. p.282. ISBN978-0-06-175952-9. Printing made it possible for Brahe to survey a wide range of publications (there were over a hundred on the comet of 1577, though many were merely astrological prognostications) and demonstrate that the four best observers had produced results compatible with his own. It also ensured that Brahe's new system was quickly known throughout Europe, so that his arguments could be tested against the nova of 1604 and the comets of 1618. Printing created a community of astronomers working on common problems with common methods and reaching agreed solutions.
↑Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge (2004). "Iberian Science in the Renaissance: Ignored How Much Longer?". Perspectives on Science. 12 (1): 86–124. doi:10.1162/106361404773843355. S2CID202639341.
↑Unger, Richard W. (1980). The Ship in the Medieval Economy, 600–1600. London: Croom Helm. p.219. ISBN159740540X. With full-rig, both propulsion and especially control were markedly better. The full-rigged ship could do more than any of its predecessors and could do so with considerably less risk.
↑Unger, Richard W. (2023). "Ships, shipping, technological change and global economic growth, 1400–1800". In Nigro, Giampiero (ed.). L'economia della conoscenza: innovazione, produttività e crescita economica nei secoli XIII-XVIII / The knowledge economy: innovation, productivity and economic growth, 13th to 18th century. Firenze University Press. pp.377, 379. doi:10.36253/979-12-215-0092-9.22. ISBN979-12-215-0092-9. In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth century there was increasing contact between northern and southern Europe by sea, contact that led directly to the development of the full-rigged ship. Mediterranean shipbuilders redesigned the cog, giving it a carvel-built hull. They then added a small lateen sail near the stern. This two-masted carrack had all the advantages of the northern cog with the additional attribute of being able to sail closer to the wind because of the triangular sail near the stern. The vessel was better able to hold a course and also could manoeuvre more easily. The last touch was to put a small mast near the bow and put a square sail on it to balance the lateen on the mizzen mast aft. The master of the ship had even greater control as a result. The exact date and location of the combination of earlier technologies is not known but already by 1400 builders knew the essential components. The Atlantic coast of Iberia is the most likely site for the earliest full-rigged ships...From the mid sixteenth century to the early years of the nineteenth use of full- rigged ships expanded. The areas of the world where the type was found and built increased to encompass all of the oceans of the world.
↑Varnhagen, Amerígo Vespucci (1865: pp. 13–26) provides side-by-side reproductions of both the 1503 Latin version Mundus Novus, and the 1507 Italian re-translation "El Nuovo Mondo de Lengue Spagnole interpretato in Idioma Ro. Libro Quinto" (from Paesi Nuovamente retrovati). The Latin version of Mundus Novus was reprinted many times (see Varnhagen, 1865: p. 9 for a list of early reprints).
↑Cameron, Ian (1974). Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp.211, 214. ISBN029776568X. OCLC842695.
↑Sánchez, Antonio (20 October 2021). "Making a Global Image of the World: Science, Cosmography and Navigation in Times of the First Circumnavigation of Earth, 1492-1522". Culture & History Digital Journal. 10 (2) e014. doi:10.3989/chdj.2021.014. hdl:10486/704384.
↑Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park (1998). Wonders and the Order of Nature. USA: New York: Zone Books. p.147. ...the revelation that the world included whole new continents undreamed of by the ancients opened up a fissure in time as well as space. Compared to earlier writing on travel, the work from the decades after 1492 demonstrate a heightened sense of novelty and possibility – of just how new and different things were able to be.
↑Mauries, Patrick (2002). Cabinets of Curiosities. Thames and Hudson.
↑"...before Columbus discovered America in 1492 there was no clear-cut and well-established idea of discovery; the idea of discovery is, as will become apparent, a precondition for the invention of science....the discovery of America disproved a central claim about the world which had been generally accepted before 1492...This was a crucial precondition for the astronomical revolution which followed." Wootton, David. The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution (Penguin, 2015) . xiv + 769 pp. ISBN0-06-175952-X
↑Herbert S, Klein, The American Finances of the Spanish Empire: Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680–1809 (1998) p. 92 onlineArchived 14 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
↑Mokyr, Joel (1990). The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford University Press. pp.68–69. ISBN978-0-19-507477-2. Dutch shipbuilding yards were at the center of progress. In 1570, a Dutch sailor came up with the idea of a separate topmast, fitted in a cap on top of the mainmast. The advantage was twofold: the tall and expensive spar trees used to make mainmasts could be dispensed with, and the topmast could be removed in bad weather, reducing the chance of damage to the mainmast...The fluytschip was the crowning achievement of a century of continuous rationalization and improvement. It was cheap to build and operate, carried a small crew and large cargoes, and until imitation caught up with them, enabled the Dutch to undercut the French and British carrying trade by 30-50 percent.
↑MacKnight, C. C. (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN0-522-84088-4.
↑Havard, Vidal, Histoire de L'Amérique française, Flammarion, 2003, p. 67.
↑McLellan, James May (2010). Colonialism and Science: Saint Domingue and the Old Regime (reprinted.). University of Chicago Press. p.63. ISBN978-0-226-51467-3. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2010. [...] French Saint Domingue at its height in the 1780s had become the single richest and most productive colony in the world.
↑Segal, Ronald (1995). The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p.4. ISBN0-374-11396-3. It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic, citing Lovejoy, Paul E. (1989). "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature". Journal of African History. 30 (3): 368. doi:10.1017/S0021853700024439.
↑Kamen, Henry (1968). "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War". Past & Present (39): 44–61. doi:10.1093/past/39.1.44. JSTOR649855.
↑Galilei, Galileo (1957). Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo(PDF). Translated by Drake, Stillman. Anchor Books. p.27. ISBN0-385-09239-3. Great indeed are the things which in this brief treatise I propose for observation and consideration by all students of nature. I say great, because of the excellence of the subject itself, the entirely unexpected and novel character of these things, and finally because of the instrument by means of which they have been revealed to our senses. Surely it is a great thing to increase the numerous host of fixed stars previously visible to the unaided vision, adding countless more which have never before been seen, exposing these plainly to the eye in numbers ten times exceeding the old and familiar stars.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Hall 1970, p.12: "...the sixteenth is unquestionably the Italian century in science. Scholars, mathematicians, physicians everywhere measured their own attainments by Italian standards; the Italian universities, and the Italian printing-houses, possessed an acknowledged pre-eminence."
↑Wootton, David (2015). The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution. Penguin. p.152. ISBN978-0-06-175952-9. It is easy to show that conventional Ptolemaic astronomy was thriving until 1610 [when Galileo observed the phases of Venus with a telescope] and went into crisis immediately afterwards...The evidence is clear: Ptolemaic astronomy was unaffected by Copernicus; it went into crisis briefly with the new star of 1572, but by the end of the sixteenth century it had fully recovered. The telescope, on the other hand, brought about its immediate and irreversible collapse.
↑Gingerich, Owen (2004). The Book Nobody Read: Chasing the Revolutions of Nicolaus Copernicus. New York: Walker & Company. p.55. ISBN978-0802714152. Reinhold and his many followers admired Copernicus for a quite different aesthetic idea, the elimination of the equant. Copernicus devoted the great majority of De revolutionibus to showing how this could be done. While he had eliminated all of Ptolemy's major epicycles, merging them all into the Earth's orbit, he then introduced a series of little epicycles to replace the equant, one per planet. Because this made the motion uniform in each Copernican circle, the anti-equant aesthetic was satisfied. My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the equant was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts.
↑Hall 1970, p.11-12: "...the universe had been created at a determined date in the past in the matter described in Holy Writ, and would cease at at undetermined but prophesied date in the future. It could be proved, both by reason and by divine authority, to be finite and immutable, save for the one speck at the centre, which was earth, unique, inconstant, alone capable of the recurring cycle of death and decay. As Man was the climax of creation, so also the earth (though the most insignificant part of the whole in size) was the climax of the universe, the hub about which all turned, and the reason for its existence."
12Koyré, Alexandre (1957). From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. p.29. ISBN978-0801803475. This scientific and philosophical revolution...can be described roughly as bringing forth the destruction of the Cosmos, that is the disappearance, from philosophically and scientifically valid concepts, of the conception of the world as a finite, closed and hierarchically ordered whole (a whole in which the hierarchy of value determined the hierarchy and structure of being, rising from the dark, heavy and imperfect earth to the higher and higher perfection of the stars and heavenly spheres), and its replacement by an indefinite and even infinite universe...and the discarding by scientific thought of all considerations based upon value concepts, such as perfection, harmony, meaning and aim, and finally the utter devalorization of being, the divorce of the world of value and the world of facts.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑Grant, Edward (2007). "The Relations between Natural Philosophy and Theology". A History of Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. p.241. ISBN978-052-1-68957-1. ...Christians developed the concept that philosophy and science are 'handmaids to theology'... Augustine strongly urged Christians not to seek secular knowledge for its own sake but to take only what is useful for a better understanding of scripture...The handmaiden theory of secular knowledge also tended to emphasize the role of authorities, from the divine Scriptures themselves to the church fathers who had interpreted Scripture. The handmaiden tradition remained strong in Western Europe up to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, during the period when natural philosophy was relatively weak.
↑Applebaum, Wilbur (2005). The Scientific Revolution and the Foundations of Modern Science. Greenwood Guides to Historic Events, 1500–1900. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp.7, 113–114. ISBN978-0-313-32314-0. Natural philosophy had long been perceived as a handmaiden to theology, which was called the "queen of the sciences." It was now coming to be thought as independent of theological constraints, with its own methods, functions, and purposes different from those of religion...Traditional conceptions of natural philosophy as a handmaid to religion were transformed in the course of the seventeenth century. Some challenged the new scientific outlooks for...denying the truth of Scripture. The new natural philosophers answered by denying the validity of literal interpretations of certain passages in the Bible, which were written to appeal to the common understanding of ordinary people...Centuries earlier St. Augustine had said the function of the Bible was not to teach us about nature. Galileo, Kepler, and others held that the Book of Nature was not designed to prepare us for salvation. They urged that natural philosophy and theology should be seen as distinct areas with their own methods and criteria, and that their practitioners should not intervene in one another's provinces.
↑Wootton, David (2015). The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. pp.6–11. ISBN978-0-06-175952-9. ...let us take for a moment a typical well-educated European in 1600...He believes in witchcraft...He believes Circe really did turn Odysseus's crew into pigs. He believes mice are spontaneously generated in piles of straw...He believes that nature abhors a vacuum. He believes the rainbow is a sign from God and that comets portend evil...He believes, of course, that the earth stands still and the sun and stars turn around the earth once every twenty-four hours...But now let us jump far ahead [to 1733]...He does not know anyone (or at least not anyone educated and reasonably sophisticated) who believes in witches, magic, alchemy or astrology; he thinks the Odyssey is fiction, not fact....He knows that the rainbow is produced by refracted light and that comets have no significance for our lives on earth. He believes that the future cannot be predicted. He knows that the heart is a pump...He believes that science is going to transform the world and that the moderns have outstripped the ancients in every possible respect. He has trouble believing in miracles, even the ones in the Bible...Between 1600 and 1733...the intellectual world of the educated elite changed more rapidly than at any time in previous history...The only name we have for this great transformation is 'the Scientific Revolution'.
↑Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.1–3. ISBN978-0-199-56741-6.
↑Lindberg, David C. (1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch". In Lindberg, David C.; Westman, Robert S. (eds.). Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution (Firsted.). Chicago: Cambridge University Press. pp.1–26. ISBN978-0-521-34262-9.
12Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science". The Beginnings of Western Science (2nded.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.357–368. ISBN978-0-226-48205-7.
↑Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
↑Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century". A History of Natural Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.274–322. ISBN978-052-1-68957-1.
↑Gal, Ofer (2021). "The New Science". The Origins of Modern Science. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.308–349. ISBN978-1316649701.
↑Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The scientific revolution". Making Modern Science (2nded.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.25–57. ISBN978-0226365763.
↑Wootton, David. The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution (Penguin, 2015). p.136. ISBN0-06-175952-X
↑Trevor Aston, ed. Crisis in Europe 1560–1660: Essays from Past and Present (1965)
↑De Vries, Jan (2009). "The Economic Crisis of the Seventeenth Century after Fifty Years". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 40 (2): 151–194. doi:10.1162/jinh.2009.40.2.151. JSTOR40263652.
↑Burke, Peter (2009). "The Crisis in the Arts of the Seventeenth Century: A Crisis of Representation?". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 40 (2): 239–261. doi:10.1162/jinh.2009.40.2.239. JSTOR40263655.
↑Gat, Azar (2006). War in Human Civilization (4thed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. p.488. ISBN978-0-19-923663-3.
↑North, Douglass C.; Weingast, Barry R. (December 1989). "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England". The Journal of Economic History. 49 (4): 803–832. doi:10.1017/S0022050700009451.
↑Brewer, John (1989). The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN978-0-394-57776-0. Parliamentary consent made public resistance to tax collection extremely difficult. Though there were occasional attacks on revenue officers these were usually carried out by professional smugglers rather than by outraged taxpayers. Most magistrates cooperated with government officials and helped them enforce the law. Officers who used their position to tyrannize the public were dismissed; revenue commissioners enjoined their employees to act with courtesy. As a result tax riots were much less frequent than in either France or Holland. Though extraction rates were high, the ground swell of grumbling and complaint was muted when compared with the voluble criticism, much of it from ministers themselves, voiced in France.
↑"That Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large – the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain." G. M. Trevelyan, A shortened history of England (1942) p. 363.
↑McGrath, John (2024). "The Enlightenment". The Modernization of the Western World. p.107. doi:10.4324/9781003467328-10. ISBN978-1-003-46732-8. The Enlightenment was a period of European intellectual and cultural development that began in the late seventeenth century and lasted through the eighteenth century.
↑Mokyr, Joel (2011). The Enlightened Economy. Penguin. p.99. ISBN978-0-14-196910-7. The Enlightenment was a Western European phenomenon, and after 1750 it reached into Central and Eastern Europe as well, even if it left the Ottoman world and much of southern Europe unaffected.
↑Zafirovski, Milan (2010). The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society. p.144.
↑Jacob, Margaret C. (2019). The Secular Enlightenment. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p.1.
↑Smaldone, William (2014). European socialism: a concise history with documents. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp.3–4. ISBN978-1-4422-0909-1.
↑Weber, Eugen (1992). Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.
↑——— (2007), Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, Oxford University Press, p.382, ISBN978-0-19-922721-1, Table A.7
↑Robert C. Allen, "Why the industrial revolution was British: commerce, induced invention, and the scientific revolution" Economic History Review 64.2 (2011): 357–384 onlineArchived 5 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
↑Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. New York: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, Inc. p.3. ISBN978-0-7131-6531-9.
↑A. Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. (1922). Modern France. A Companion to French Studies. Cambridge UP. p.115. From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life...
↑Alexander Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (2003) pp. 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59
↑Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great," BBC History Magazine (1 November 2014)
↑"For nearly two decades the Italians had excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality."Frederick B. Artz, Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 (1934) pp. 142–43
↑"It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works." William Martin, Histoire de la Suisse (Paris, 1926), pp. 187–88, quoted in Crane Brinson, A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799 (1934) p. 235
↑Hamerow, Theodore S. (1958). Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871. Princeton University Press. pp.22–24, 44–45.
↑Robert R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (New York: McGraw Hill, 1995), pp. 428–29.
↑Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds. The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
↑Hamerow, Theodore S. (1958). Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. The revolutionary events of 1848 attracted my special attention. For here Central Europe was exposed to influences and forces long familiar to western states. Here the ideals of freedom and unity inspired a political movement which briefly overcame the tradition of conservatism. And here liberalism suffered a defeat from which it never recovered. As Mr. A. J. P. Taylor puts it, "German history reached a turning point and failed to turn." Yet how differently things might have turned out had Heinrich von Gagern become the architect of German unity instead of Otto von Bismarck. Would a parliamentary system of government have embraced so blindly a policy of blood and iron? Would democratic statesmen have taken the fatal road to Sarajevo? Would a public opinion nurtured on freedom have tolerated the Third Reich? The failure of the Revolution strengthened ideas and practices which led Europe to the holocaust. The penalty for the mistakes of 1848 was paid not in 1849, but in 1918, in 1933, and in 1945.
↑Kenneth Scott Latourette, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume I: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: Background and the Roman Catholic Phase (1958) pp. 321–23, 370, 458–59, 464–66.
↑A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945, and The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918
↑Katherine Ann Lerman, "Bismarck, Otto von." in Europe 1789–1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, edited by John Merriman and Jay Winter, (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006) vol 1, pp. 233–242. onlineArchived 29 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
↑Theodore S. Hamerow, ed., Otto von Bismarck and imperial Germany: a historical assessment (1994)
↑Kohn, Hans (1950). "Napoleon and the Age of Nationalism". The Journal of Modern History. 22 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1086/237315. JSTOR1875877.
↑Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, eds., The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-century Italy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
↑Mayans Balcells, Pere (2019). Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola (in Catalan) (del 1979ed.). Edicions del 1979. p.230. ISBN978-84-947201-4-7.
↑Lluís, García Sevilla (2021). Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana (in Catalan). Base. p.300. ISBN9788418434983.
↑Bea Seguí, Ignaci (2013). En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana (in Catalan). Cossetània. p.216. ISBN9788490341339.
↑Sobrequés Callicó, Jaume (29 January 2021). Repressió borbònica i resistència identitària a la Catalunya del segle XVIII (in Catalan). Departament de Justícia de la Generalitat de Catalunya. p.410. ISBN978-84-18601-20-0.
↑Ferrer Gironès, Francesc (1985). La persecució política de la llengua catalana (in Catalan) (62ed.). Edicions 62. p.320. ISBN978-8429723632.
↑Benet, Josep (1995). L'intent franquista de genocidi cultural contra Catalunya (in Catalan). Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat. ISBN84-7826-620-8.
↑Llaudó Avila, Eduard (2021). Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània (7thed.). Manresa: Parcir. ISBN9788418849107.
↑"European Migration and Imperialism". historydoctor.net. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 14 September 2013. The population of Europe entered its third and decisive stage in the early eighteenth century. Birthrates declined, but death rates also declined as the standard of living and advances in medical science provided for longer life spans. The population of Europe including Russia more than doubled from 188million in 1800 to 432million in 1900. From 1815 through 1932, sixty million people left Europe, primarily to "areas of European settlement," in North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and Siberia. These populations also multiplied rapidly in their new habitat; much more so than the populations of Africa and Asia. As a result, on the eve of World War I (1914), 38 percent of the world's total population was of European ancestry. This growth in population provided further impetus for European expansion, and became the driving force behind emigration. Rising populations put pressure on land, and land hunger and led to "land hunger." Millions of people went abroad in search of work or economic opportunity. The Irish, who left for America during the great Potato famine, were an extreme but not unique example. Ultimately, one third of all European migrants came from the British Isles between 1840 and 1920. Italians also migrated in large numbers because of poor economic conditions in their home country. German migration also was steady until industrial conditions in Germany improved when the wave of migration slowed. Less than one half of all migrants went to the United States, although it absorbed the largest number of European migrants. Others went to Asiatic Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia and New Zealand.
↑Andrew Porter and William Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 3, The Nineteenth Century (1999).
↑Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012)
↑Brian Bond, "The First World War" in C.L. Mowat, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945 (2nd ed. 1968) online pp. 171–208.
↑Overviews include David Stevenson, Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy (2005) and Ian F. W. Beckett, The Great War: 1914–1918 (2nd ed. 2007)
↑For reference see Martin Gilbert, Atlas of World War I (1995) and Spencer Tucker, ed., The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1996)
↑Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013) p xxiii
↑Sally Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918–1933 (2nd ed. 2003)
↑Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933 (2007)
↑Dominic Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and Its Rivals (2000) pp. 226–30, 278–80.
↑Carole Fink, "The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights," Peace and Change: A journal of peace research (1996) 21#3 pp. 273–88
↑Gregory M. Luebbert, Liberalism, fascism, or social democracy: Social classes and the political origins of regimes in interwar Europe (Oxford UP, 1991).
↑Charles Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929–1939 (2nd ed. 1986) provides a broad survey by an economist,
↑Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s (2000) 816pp covers far more details by a political historian.
↑Dinah Shelton, ed., Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity (3 vol. 2004)
↑John Wheeler-Bennett, The Semblance of Peace: The Political Settlement After The Second World War (1972) thorough diplomatic coverage 1939–1952.
↑Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (1989) pp. 26–28, 430–43.
↑DeLong, J. Bradford; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program". In Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nolling, Wilhelm; Layard, Richard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today. MIT Press. pp.189–230. ISBN978-0-262-04136-2. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2018. It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix.
↑Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe," Klaus Larresm, ed. (2014). A Companion to Europe Since 1945. Wiley. p.79. ISBN978-1-118-89024-0. The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan.
↑David Priestland, "Margaret Thatcher?" BBC History Magazine 1 May 2013
↑"30 years of the web: a short history of the invention that changed the world". British Council. Retrieved 19 September 2025. Berners-Lee and others worked to ensure that CERN would make the underlying code available on a royalty-free basis, forever. This decision was announced in April 1993 and sparked a global wave of creativity, collaboration, and innovation.
↑Herb, Jeremy; Starr, Barbara; Kaufman, Ellie (24 February 2022). "US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine". Oren Liebermann and Michael Conte. CNN. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022. Russia's invasion of its neighbor in Ukraine is the largest conventional military attack that's been seen since World War II, the senior defense official said Thursday outlining United States observations of the unfolding conflict
↑Tsvetkova, Maria; Vasovic, Aleksandar; Zinets, Natalia; Charlish, Alan; Grulovic, Fedja (27 February 2022). "Putin puts nuclear 'deterrence' forces on alert". Reuters. Writing by Robert Birsel and Frank Jack Daniel; Editing by William Mallard, Angus MacSwan and David Clarke. Kyiv. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022. ... [t]he biggest assault on a European state since World War Two.
↑Lazarovici, Gheorghe and Merlini, Marco, "4 Tărtăria Tablets: The Latest Evidence in an Archaeological Thriller", Western-Pontic Culture Ambience and Pattern: In memory of Eugen Comsa, edited by Lolita Nikolova, Marco Merlini and Alexandra Comsa, Warsaw, Poland: De Gruyter Open Poland, pp. 53–142, 2016
↑Rehm, Ellen (2010). "The Impact of the Achaemenids on Thrace: A Historical Review". In Nieling, Jens; Rehm, Ellen (eds.). Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea: Communication of Powers. Black Sea Studies. Vol.11. Aarhus University Press. p.143. ISBN978-8779344310. In 470/469 BC, the strategist Kimon, mentioned above, defeated the Persian fleet at the mouth of the Eurymedon river. Subsequently, it seems that the royal house of the Odrysians in Thrace gained power and in about 465/464 BC emerged from the Persian shadow. The Odrysians became aware of the power vacuum resulting from the withdrawal of the Persians and claimed back supremacy over the region inhabited by several tribes. From this period onwards an indigenous ruling dynasty is comprehensible.
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Murray, James M. (2010). "Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in Medieval Europe". In Landes, David S.; Mokyr, Joel; Baumol, William J. (eds.). The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-14370-5.
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