Voiceless alveolar fricative

Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative
Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative
ɾ̞̊

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative
θ̠
t̞

Voiceless alveolar sibilant
Voiceless alveolar sibilant
s
IPA number	132
Audio sample
	source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	s
Unicode (hex)	U+0073
X-SAMPA	s
Braille
Image

Voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least five types with significant perceptual differences:

A voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] (the standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA) has a strong hissing sound, as the s in English sink. It is one of the most common sounds in the world.
A voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant [s̟] or [s̄] (an ad hoc notation), also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English th in thin. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain (eastern Andalusia).
A voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant [s̠], and the subform apico-alveolar [s̺], has a weak hushing sound (also called "grave" frication) reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Asturleonese, Basque, Peninsular Spanish (excluding parts of Andalusia), Catalan, Galician, and Northern European Portuguese. A similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, some southern dialects of Swedish, Finnish, and Greek. The retracted "S" is also used in Amerindian languages such as Muscogee, Garifuna, and many varieties of Quechua. It was supposedly the standard sound of s in Classical Latin. ^{[citation needed]} Its sound is between [s] and [ʃ].
A voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] or [θ͇] (using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA) is similar to the th in English thin. It occurs in Icelandic as well as an intervocalic and word-final allophone of English /t/ in dialects such as Hiberno-English and Scouse.
A voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English l (somewhat like what the English cluster **hl would sound like) and is written as ll in Welsh.

The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.

Voiceless coronal fricatives
	Inter- dental	Dental	Denti- alveolar	Alveolar	Post-alveolar
	Inter- dental	Dental	Denti- alveolar	Alveolar	Retracted	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Alveolo- palatal
Sibilant		s̪	s̟	s͇	s̠	ʂ	ʃ	ɕ
Non-sibilant	θ̟	θ	θ̠	θ͇		ɻ̝̊	ɹ̠̊˔

Voiceless alveolar sibilant

A voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in spoken languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as sssst! or psssst!.

Voiceless alveolar sibilants [s] are one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have [s]. However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as [ʃ], but no [s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, [s] does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.

Features

Features of a voiceless alveolar sibilant:

Its manner of articulation is sibilant (a subclass of fricatives and affricates), which means it is generally produced with a higher-frequency turbulence. Sibilants may be articulated with various tongue shapes and degrees of palatalization, depending on their place of articulation.
There are at least three specific variants of [s]:
- Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [s] is very strong.
- Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
- Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal [ʂ] or (to a lesser extent) [ʃ].
Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Acehnese		seuôt	[s̻̪ɯˈʔot̠̚]	'to answer'	Described by Durie as a "laminal alveo-dental fricative with a wide channel area". Often desibilized into [θ] in the Greater Aceh dialect. See Acehnese phonology
Arabic	Gulf	مسجد (masjid)	[mɐˈs̪d͡ʒɪd̪]	'mosque'
Armenian	Eastern	սար (sar)	[s̪ɑɾ]^ⓘ	'mountain'
Azerbaijani		su	[s̪u]	'water'
Belarusian		стагоддзе (stağoddzě)	[s̪t̪äˈɣod̪d̪͡z̪ʲe]	'century'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Bulgarian		всеки (vseki)	[ˈfs̪ɛkʲi]	'everyone'	Contrasts with palatalized form.
Chinese	Mandarin	三 (sān)	[s̪a̋n]	'three'	See Mandarin phonology
Chuvash		савăт (savët)	[s̪aʋət]	'vessel, glass'
English	Auckland	sand	[s̪ɛnˑd̥]	'sand'	See English phonology
English	Multicultural London	sand	[s̪anˑd̥]	'sand'	See English phonology
French		façade	[fäs̪äd̪]	'front'	See French phonology
Hungarian		sziget	[ˈs̪iɡɛt̪]	'island'	See Hungarian phonology
Italian	Standard	sali	[ˈsäːli]	'you go up'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. See Italian phonology
Italian	Ticino	sali	[ˈsäːli]	'you go up'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. Both variants may be labiodentalized. See Italian phonology
Kashubian		sus	[ˈsus]	'ground squirrel'
Kazakh		сом (sum)	[s̪u̯ʊm]	'pure'
Kyrgyz		сабиз (sabiz)	[s̪äˈbis̪]	'carrot'
Latvian		sens	[s̪æn̪s̪]	'ancient'	See Latvian phonology
Macedonian		скока (skoka)	[ˈs̪kɔkä]	'jump'	See Macedonian phonology
Mirandese		sangre	[s̺ɐ̃(ŋ)ɡɾe]	'blood'	Contrasts seven sibilants altogether, preserving medieval Ibero-Romance contrasts.
Norwegian	Urban East	sand	[sɑnː]	'sand'	Most often dentalized laminal, but can be non-retracted apical for some speakers. See Norwegian phonology
Polish		sum	[s̪um]^ⓘ	'catfish'	See Polish phonology
Romanian		surd	[s̪ur̪d̪]	'deaf'	See Romanian phonology
Russian		волосы (volosy)	[ˈvo̞ɫ̪əs̪ɨ̞]^ⓘ	'hair'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic		slàinte	[ˈs̪ɫ̪äːn̪t̪ʰʲə]	'cheers'	See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Serbo-Croatian		село (selo)	[s̪ĕ̞lo̞]	'village'	See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovak		sto	[stɔ]	'hundred'	See Slovak phonology
Slovene		svet	[s̪ʋêːt̪]	'world'	See Slovene phonology
Spanish	Andalusian	casa	[ˈkäs̻̪ä]	'house'	Present in dialects with ceceo. See Spanish phonology
Spanish	Iberian	estar	[e̞s̪ˈt̪äɾ]	'to be'	Allophone of /s/ before dental consonants. See Spanish phonology
Swedish	Central Standard	säte	[ˈs̪ɛːt̪ə]	'seat'	Retracted in some southern dialects. See Swedish phonology
Toda		[kɔs̪]		'money'	Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.
Turkish		su	[s̪u]	'water'	See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian		село (selo)	[s̪ɛˈɫ̪ɔ]	'village'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian		sowa	[ˈs̪owä]	'owl'
Uzbek		soät	[ˈs̪o̞æt̪]	'hour'
Vietnamese	Hanoi	xa	[s̪äː]	'far'	See Vietnamese phonology

Alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Adyghe		сэ (sė)	[sa]	'I'
Arabic	Modern Standard	جَلَس (ǧalasa)	[ˈdʒælæsɐ]	'to sit'	See Arabic phonology
Assyrian		ܣܝܦܐ (sèpa)	[seːpaː]	'sword'
Bengali		রাস্তা (rasta)	[raːst̪a]	'street'	See Bengali phonology
Breton		spered	[ˈspered]	'spirit'
Burmese		စခန်း (ca.hkan:)	[sə kʰáɰ̃]	'camp'
Chechen		сурт (surt)	[suʊrt]	'picture'
Chinese	Cantonese	閃 (sim2)	[siːm˧˥]	'twinkle'	See Cantonese phonology
Czech		svět	[svjɛt]^ⓘ	'world'	See Czech phonology
Danish		sælge	[ˈseljə]	'sell'	Most often non-retracted apical, but can be dentalized laminal for some speakers. See Danish phonology
Dutch	Belgian Standard	scheepvaart	[ˈsxeːˌp̪͡faˑrt]^ⓘ	'navigation'	Laminal. See Dutch phonology
Dutch	Northern Standard	scheepvaart	[ˈsχep̪ˌfaˑɾtʰ]^ⓘ	'navigation'	Laminal. It is laxer than in English, has a graver frication and is sometimes labialized. It is often retracted when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/. See Dutch phonology
Emilian		sèl	[ˈs̺ʲɛːl]	'salt'	Palatalized apical; may be [ʂ] or [ʃ] instead.
English		sit	[sɪʔtʰ]^ⓘ	'sit'	See English phonology
Esperanto		Esperanto	[espeˈranto]	'Who hopes'	See Esperanto phonology
Faroese		sandur	[sandʊɹ]	'sand'
German	Standard	Biss	[bɪs]	'bite'	Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical. See Standard German phonology
Georgian		სამი (sami)	[ˈsɑmi]	'three'
Hebrew		ספר (sefer)	[ˈsefeʁ]	'book'	See Modern Hebrew phonology
Hindustani		साल / سال (sāl)	[säːl]	'year'	See Hindustani phonology
Italian	Standard	sali	[ˈsäːli]	'you go up'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. See Italian phonology
Italian	Ticino	sali	[ˈsäːli]	'you go up'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. Both variants may be labiodentalized. See Italian phonology
Japanese		複数形 (fukusūkē)	[ɸɯkɯ̊sɯːkeː]	'plural'	See Japanese phonology
Kabardian		сэ (sė)	[sa]	'I'
Karen	S'gaw Karen	စ့ၤ^{[romanization needed]}	[sē]	'silver'
Karen	Western Pwo	စဲၪ့^{[romanization needed]}	[sàiɴ]	'to run'
Katë		su	[su]	'sun'
Khmer		អេស្ប៉ាញ (éspanh)	[ʔeːˈspaːɲ]	noun: 'Spain' adjective: 'Spanish'	See Khmer phonology
Khmer		ម៉ាស៊ីន (masin)	[maːˈsiːn]	'machine'	See Khmer phonology
Korean		섬 (seom)	[sʌːm]	'island'	See Korean phonology
Malay		satu	[satu]	'one'
Malayalam		സ്വപ്നം (svapnaṁ)	[sʋəpɨn̪əm]	'dream'	See Malayalam phonology
Maltese		iebes	[eaˈbes]	'hard'
Marathi		साप (sāp)	[säːp]	'snake'	See Marathi phonology
Nepali		सगरमाथा (sagarmāthā)	[sʌɡʌrmät̪ʰä]	'Mount Everest'	See Nepali phonology
Odia		ସମାନ^{[romanization needed]}	[sɔmänɔ]	'equal'
Occitan	Limousin	maichent	[mejˈsẽ]	'bad'
Persian		سیب (sib)	[sib]	'apple'	See Persian phonology
Portuguese		caço	[ˈkasu]	'I hunt'	See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi		ਸੱਪ (sapp)	[səpː]	'snake'
Spanish	Latin American	saltador	[s̻a̠l̪t̪a̠ˈð̞o̞r]	'jumper'	See Spanish phonology and Seseo
	Canarian
	Andalusian
	Filipino
Swahili		Kiswahili	[kiswaˈhili]	'Swahili'
Sylheti		ꠢꠂꠍꠦ (oise)	[ɔise]	'done'
Tagalog		lasa	[ˈlasɐ]	'taste'
Tamil		சாப்பிடு (sāppidu)	[saːpːɪɖɯ]	'to eat'	See Tamil phonology
Ticino		^{[example needed]}			Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. Both variants may be labiodentalized. See Italian phonology
Toki Pona		suwi	[suwi]	'sweet'	Varies. See Toki Pona phonology
Vietnamese		xa	[saː˧]	'far'	See Vietnamese phonology
Yi		ꌦ (sy)	[sɹ̩˧]	'die'

Retracted alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Asturian		pasu	[ˈpäs̺u]	'step'	Apical.
Basque		su	[s̺u]	'fire'	Apical. Contrasts with a dentalized laminal sibilant.
Catalan	Most dialects	set	[ˈs̺ɛt̪]	'seven'	Apical. See Catalan phonology
	Central Valencian	zel	[ˈs̺æ̠ɫ]	'zeal'	Apical. Devoiced allophone of /z/ in parts of Central Valencian and Eastern Aragon. See Catalan phonology
	Central Valencian	utilitzar	[u̞t̪i̞ɫi̞ˈs̺ɑɾ]	'to use'	Apical. Deaffrication of /d͡z/ and devoiced allophone found in parts of Central Valencian and Eastern Aragon. See Catalan phonology
	Some Valencian speakers	ix	[ˈis̠]	'he/she goes out'	Realized as pre-palatal /ʃ/ [ɕ] (or /jʃ/ [jɕ] in certain cases in some dialects) in Standard Catalan and Valencian. See Catalan phonology
Dutch	Netherlandic speakers	sik	[ˈs̠ɪkʰ]^ⓘ	'goatee'	Laminal and on the lax end of articulation spectrum. Can be labialized. If retracted is not the main allophone, may appear as such when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/. See Dutch phonology
English	Glasgow	sun	[s̺ʌn]	'sun'	Working-class pronunciation, other speakers may use a non-retracted [s]
Emilian		sèinpar	[ˈs̠æ̃.pər]	'always'
Estonian		sõna	[ˈsɤnɑ]	'word'
Finnish		sinä	[ˈsinæ]	'you'	Varies between non-retracted and retracted. See Finnish phonology
Galician		saúde	[s̺äˈuðe]	'health'	Apical.
Greek		Κωνσταντινούπολις (Kōnstantinoúpolis)	[ko̞nᵗstɐndi ˈn̠uˑpo̞lis̠ː]^ⓘ	'Constantinople'	Varies between non-retracted and retracted, depending on the environment. See Modern Greek phonology
Icelandic		USSS	[ˈʔʏ̠s̠ː]^ⓘ	'(initialism) USSS'	Usually apical, can alternatively be laminal. See Icelandic phonology
Italian	Central Italy	sali	[ˈs̠äːli]	'you go up'	Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro, most of Umbria (save Perugia and the extreme south), Marche and south of Potenza.
	Northern Italy				Apical. Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line. Derived from local languages of northern Italy. See Italian phonology
	Sicily				Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.
Leonese		pasu	[ˈpäs̺ʊ]	'step'	Apical.
Low German		^{[example needed]}
Mirandese		passo	[ˈpäs̺u]	'step'	Apical. Contrasts with /s̪/.
Occitan	Gascon	dos	[d̻ys̺]	'two'	See Occitan phonology
Occitan	Languedocien	dos	[d̻us̺]	'two'	See Occitan phonology
Piedmontese		sapin	[s̠apiŋ]	'pine'	Apical.
Portuguese	European, inland northern	cansaço	[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̻u]	'weariness'	Apical. Contrasts with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology
	European, coastal northern	cansaço	[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̺u]	'weariness'	Merges with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology
	Inland and southern Capixaba	pescador	[pe̞s̺käˈd̻oχ]	'fisherman'	Realization of Portuguese coda sibilant, which may be postalveolars, depending on dialect
	Carioca do brejo	escadas	[is̺ˈkäd̻ɐs̺]	'stairs'
Spanish	Andean	saltador	[s̺äl̪t̪äˈð̞o̞ɾ]	'jumper'	Apical. In Andean and Paisa (except in southern parts of Antioquia) alternates with a more frequent coronal-dental /s/. See Spanish phonology and seseo
	Castilian
	Paisa accent
Swedish	Blekinge	säte	[ˈs̠ɛːte]	'seat'	See Swedish phonology
	Bohuslän
	Halland
	Scania
Toda		[poːs̠]		'milk'	Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.
Vietnamese	Saigon	xe	[s̺ɛ˧]	'vehicle'	Apical.
West Frisian		sâlt	[sɔːt]	'salt'	Laminal. It is laxer than in English and has a graver frication. It varies between retracted and non-retracted, depending on the environment. See West Frisian phonology

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative

A voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a slit fricative) is a consonantal sound in some spoken languages. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for non-sibilant alveolar fricatives, this sound can be transcribed by use of diacritics, such as ⟨θ̠⟩ (a retracted [θ]) or ⟨t̞⟩ (a lowered [t], appears in the IPA Handbook). Additional symbols include ⟨θ͇⟩ (with the alveolar diacritic, in extIPA) and ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩ (a raised and devoiced [ɹ], typically part of the affricate [tɹ̝̊]).

Features

Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Emilian	Bolognese	zidrån	[θ̠iˈdrʌn]	'lemon'
English	Australian	mat	[ˈmæt̞]	'mat'	Rare allophone of /t/. See Australian English phonology
	Irish	Italy	[ˈɪt̞ɪli]	'Italy'	Common allophone of /t/. See Hiberno-English § Phonology
	New Zealand	batter	[ˈbɛt̞ə]	'batter'	One of many allophones of intervocalic /t/; may also be preaspirated. See New Zealand English phonology
	Scouse	fit	[ˈfɪθ͇]	'fit'	Common allophone of /t/. See Scouse § Phonology
	Received Pronunciation	potato	[pə̥ˈtʰɛɪ̯t̞ɜʉ̯]^ⓘ	'potato'	Common allophone of intervocalic /t/. See Received Pronunciation § Phonology
Icelandic		þú	[θ̠uː]^ⓘ	'you' (≡ thou)	Laminal. Variably removed from the front teeth, up to (nearly) spot on [θ]. May be affricated word initially. See Icelandic phonology

Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative

A few languages also have a voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur, such as ⟨ɾ̞̊⟩. Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.

Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Afenmai		aru	[aɾ̞̊u]	'hat'	tense equivalent of lax /ɾ/.
English	General American	city	[ˈsɪɾ̞̊ɪ]	'city'	In free variation with a plain voiceless tap [ɾ̥]. Intervocalic allophone of /t/, more typically realized as a voiced tap [ɾ]. See General American English § T and D flapping
Portuguese	European	girar	[ʒiˈɾ̞̊aɾ]	'rotate'	Common allophone of /ɾ/ in all positions, and in some cases may also be an allophone of /ʁ/. See Portuguese phonology § Rhotics
Turkish		bir	[biɾ̞̊]	'a(n)'	Word-final allophone of /ɾ/. See Turkish phonology

Voiceless alveolar approximant

Voiceless alveolar rhotic approximant
ɹ̥
Audio sample
source · help

Voiceless alveolar spirant approximant
s̞

A voiceless alveolar approximant is a similar sound with less turbulent airflow. The IPA has no dedicated symbol that represents this sound, but it may be transcribed as ⟨ɹ̥⟩ (a devoiced [ɹ]) or ⟨s̞⟩ (a lowered [s]). However, there may also be a featural distinction between these two transcriptions: [ɹ̥] has been described as a 'rhotic approximant', while [s̞] has been described as a 'spirant approximant'.

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Dutch	Speakers mainly with coronal /r/	Geert	[ɣeːɹ̥t]	'Geert'	One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology
English		pray	[ˈpɹ̥eɪ]	'pray'	Realization of /r/ after voiceless plosives, with [j̊] and [w̥] seeing equivalent patterning for /j/ and /w/. See English phonology
Faroese		eiturkoppur	[ˈaiːtʊɹ̥ˌkʰɔʰpːʊɹ]	'spider'	Devoiced approximant allophone of /r/. See Faroese phonology
Miyakoan	Irabu	[ps̞tu]		'man'	Devoiced allophone of [z̞] when occurring after a voiceless bilabial plosive /p/. See Miyakoan language § Phonology
Spanish	Chilean	socito	[s̞oˈs̞it̪o]	'partner/buddy' (dim)	Allophone of /s/. In variation with numerous other allophones (depending on position) with varying degrees of stigmatization, with up to 15 allophones of /s/ in total: three approximants [θ̞, θ̞᫈, s̞], ten fricatives [θ, θ̟, s, s͎, s̠, z, ɕ, ʂ᫈, h, ɦ], one affricate [ts], and one null phone [∅].

Notes

↑ More specifically described as a "voiceless alveolar rhotic fricative",^: 712 which may be a slightly different sound than the other non-sibilant fricatives below.

References

1 2 Dalbor (1980), p. 9.
↑ Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.
↑ Maddieson (1984), p. ?.
↑ Jessica Hunter; Claire Bowern; Erich Round (2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait". Journal of Language Contact. 4 (1): 106–140. doi:10.1163/187740911x558798. Wikidata Q56228341. {{Cite Q}}: Missing first/last names in Wikidata for Jessica Hunter, Claire Bowern , Erich Round (help)
1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154
1 2 Durie 1984, pp. 13–15.
↑ Cowan, H. K. J. (1981). "An Outline of Achehnese Phonology and Morphology". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 44 (3): 522–549. ISSN 0041-977X.
↑ Muthalib 2017, pp. 66–67.
↑ Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.
↑ Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
↑ Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.
↑ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
↑ Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
↑ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.
↑ Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.
↑ Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.
↑ "English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.
↑ Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
↑ Grønnum (2005), p. 144.
↑ Szende (1999), p. 104.
1 2 3 4 Canepari (1992), p. 68.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Canepari (1992), p. 72.
1 2 3 Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
↑ Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
↑ Kara (2002), p. 10.
↑ Kara (2003), p. 11.
↑ Nau (1998), p. 6.
↑ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
1 2 Skaug (2003), pp. 130–131.
↑ Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
↑ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}
↑ Chew (2003), p. 67.
↑ Lamb (2003), p. 18.
↑ Kordić (2006), p. 5.
↑ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
↑ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
1 2 3 4 Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 258.
↑ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.
↑ Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
↑ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Adams (1975), p. 289.
1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.
1 2 Ladefoged (2005), p. 168.
1 2 Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66.
↑ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
↑ Buk, Mačutek & Rovenchak (2008).
↑ Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
↑ Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
↑ Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.
↑ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
↑ Palková (1994), p. 228.
1 2 Basbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.
1 2 Thorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that /s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.
1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.
1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
1 2 3 4 5 Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
1 2 Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 73.
1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.
↑ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
↑ Okada (1999), p. 117.
1 2 Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
↑ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
1 2 Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".
1 2 Hualde, J. Basque Phonology (1991) Routledge ISBN 0-415-05655-1
↑ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
↑ Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
↑ Wheeler 2005, p. 23.
↑ Saborit (2009), p. 12.
↑ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
↑ Kokkelmans, JOACHIM HENRI N (2021). "The Phonetics and Phonology of Sibilants: A Synchronic and Diachronic OT Typology of Sibilant Inventories". Università degli studi di Verona (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-06-23.
1 2 Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 27.
1 2 Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
1 2 Kress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, as s in sausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the German sch. The difference is that German sch is labialized, while Icelandic s is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."
1 2 3 4 Pétursson (1971), p. ?, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.
↑ Rögnvaldsson, Eiríkur (2017). "Íslensk hljóðkerfisfræði" [Icelandic phonology] (PDF) (in Icelandic). Reykjavík. pp. 36–37.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.
↑ Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
↑ Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.
↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71.
↑ Adams (1975), p. 285.
↑ "2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)] (PDF). Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30.
↑ Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.
↑ Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.
↑ Thompson (1959).
↑ International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63751-1. p. 16: …so that [t̞] could be used to indicate an articulation like that of an alveolar plosive but one in which complete closure is not achieved, yielding a fricative-like sound (but lacking the grooved tongue shape of [s]) as in some Irish English pronunciations of the sound at the end of right.
1 2 Konyak, Hoipo; Mulder, Mijke (2022). "A brief outline of Chen phonology". Proceedings of the 12th Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium. Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium 2022. Chiang Mai: Payap University. pp. 709–721. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
1 2 Loakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.
↑ Jones & McDougall (2009).
↑ Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.
↑ Fiasson (2016).
↑ Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.
↑ Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
1 2 Buizza (2011), pp. 16–28.
1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 139.
↑ Rögnvaldsson (2017), p. 36.
↑ Haugen (1958), fn. 10.
1 2 3 4 Laver (1994), p. 263.
1 2 Laver (1994), pp. 263–264.
1 2 Jesus & Shadle (2005).
1 2 Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.
1 2 Candia & Rogers (2026), pp. 279–280.
↑ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 75.
1 2 Árnason (2011), p. 115.
1 2 Shimoji (2008), pp. 44, 48.
↑ Sadowsky & Salamanca (2011), p. 79.
1 2 Sadowsky (2015), pp. 78–79, 86–87.

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External links

[89] More specifically described as a "voiceless alveolar rhotic fricative",^: 712 which may be a slightly different sound than the other non-sibilant fricatives below.

[FOOTNOTEDalbor19809-1] 1 2 Dalbor (1980), p. 9.

[FOOTNOTEPandeliEskaBallRahilly1997?-2] Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.

[FOOTNOTEMaddieson1984?-3] Maddieson (1984), p. ?.

[kalaw-4] Jessica Hunter; Claire Bowern; Erich Round (2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait". Journal of Language Contact. 4 (1): 106–140. doi:10.1163/187740911x558798. Wikidata Q56228341. {{Cite Q}}: Missing first/last names in Wikidata for Jessica Hunter, Claire Bowern , Erich Round (help)

[PNFK-5] 1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154

[FOOTNOTEDurie198413–15-6] 1 2 Durie 1984, pp. 13–15.

[7] Cowan, H. K. J. (1981). "An Outline of Achehnese Phonology and Morphology". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 44 (3): 522–549. ISSN 0041-977X.

[FOOTNOTEMuthalib201766–67-8] Muthalib 2017, pp. 66–67.

[FOOTNOTEQafisheh19772,_9-9] Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.

[FOOTNOTEKozintseva19957-10] Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEAxundov1983115,_128–131-11] Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.

[FOOTNOTEPadluzhny198947-12] Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.

[FOOTNOTEKlagstad195846-13] Klagstad (1958), p. 46.

[FOOTNOTELeeZee2003109–110-14] Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.

[FOOTNOTELin200117–25-15] Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.

[FOOTNOTEBauerWarren2004594-16] Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.

[17] "English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975288-18] 1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.

[FOOTNOTEFougeronSmith199979-19] Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.

[FOOTNOTEGrønnum2005144-20] Grønnum (2005), p. 144.

[FOOTNOTESzende1999104-21] Szende (1999), p. 104.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199268-22] 1 2 3 4 Canepari (1992), p. 68.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199272-23] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Canepari (1992), p. 72.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199268_and_72-24] 1 2 3 Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.

[25] Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-16.

[FOOTNOTEKara200210-26] Kara (2002), p. 10.

[FOOTNOTEKara200311-27] Kara (2003), p. 11.

[FOOTNOTENau19986-28] Nau (1998), p. 6.

[FOOTNOTELunt19521-29] Lunt (1952), p. 1.

[FOOTNOTESkaug2003130–131-30] 1 2 Skaug (2003), pp. 130–131.

[FOOTNOTERocławski1976149-31] Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.

[32] Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}

[FOOTNOTEChew200367-33] Chew (2003), p. 67.

[FOOTNOTELamb200318-34] Lamb (2003), p. 18.

[FOOTNOTEKordić20065-35] Kordić (2006), p. 5.

[FOOTNOTELandauLončarićHorgaŠkarić199967-36] Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.

[FOOTNOTEPretnarTokarz198021-37] Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez-CeldránFernández-PlanasCarrera-Sabaté2003258-38] 1 2 3 4 Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 258.

[FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996171-39] Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.

[FOOTNOTEEngstrand1999140–141-40] Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.

[FOOTNOTEEngstrand2004167-41] Engstrand (2004), p. 167.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975289-42] 1 2 3 4 5 6 Adams (1975), p. 289.

[FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996157-43] 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.

[FOOTNOTELadefoged2005168-44] 1 2 Ladefoged (2005), p. 168.

[FOOTNOTEKrishnamurti200366-45] 1 2 Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66.

[FOOTNOTEZimmerOrgun1999154-46] Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.

[FOOTNOTEBukMačutekRovenchak2008-47] Buk, Mačutek & Rovenchak (2008).

[FOOTNOTEŠewc-Schuster198422,_38,_39-48] Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.

[FOOTNOTESjoberg196311-49] Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEThompson19878–9-50] Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.

[FOOTNOTEThelwall199037-51] Thelwall (1990), p. 37.

[FOOTNOTEPalková1994228-52] Palková (1994), p. 228.

[FOOTNOTEBasbøll200561_and_131-53] 1 2 Basbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.

[thor80-54] 1 2 Thorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that /s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.

[gr144-55] 1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.

[FOOTNOTECollinsMees2003190-56] 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.

[FOOTNOTECollinsMees2003145,_190-57] 1 2 3 4 5 Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.

[FOOTNOTEGussenhoven199975-58] 1 2 Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199273-59] 1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 73.

[FOOTNOTEMangold200550-60] 1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.

[FOOTNOTEShostedChikovani2006255-61] Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.

[FOOTNOTEOkada1999117-62] Okada (1999), p. 117.

[FOOTNOTECruz-Ferreira199591-63] 1 2 Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.

[FOOTNOTEThompson1959458–461-64] Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.

[Hualde-65] 1 2 Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".

[Hualde2-66] 1 2 Hualde, J. Basque Phonology (1991) Routledge ISBN 0-415-05655-1

[FOOTNOTECarbonellLlisterri199254-67] Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.

[FOOTNOTETorreblanca1988347-68] Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.

[FOOTNOTEWheeler200523-69] Wheeler 2005, p. 23.

[FOOTNOTESaborit200912-70] Saborit (2009), p. 12.

[71] "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2013-04-23.

[72] Kokkelmans, JOACHIM HENRI N (2021). "The Phonetics and Phonology of Sibilants: A Synchronic and Diachronic OT Typology of Sibilant Inventories". Università degli studi di Verona (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-06-23.

[FOOTNOTESuomiToivanenYlitalo200827-73] 1 2 Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 27.

[FOOTNOTEArvaniti200712-74] 1 2 Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.

[Kress2324-75] 1 2 Kress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, as s in sausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the German sch. The difference is that German sch is labialized, while Icelandic s is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."

[Pétursson-76] 1 2 3 4 Pétursson (1971), p. ?, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.

[77] Rögnvaldsson, Eiríkur (2017). "Íslensk hljóðkerfisfræði" [Icelandic phonology] (PDF) (in Icelandic). Reykjavík. pp. 36–37.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975286-78] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975285–286-79] Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199271–72-80] Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199271-81] Canepari (1992), p. 71.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975285-82] Adams (1975), p. 285.

[83] "2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)] (PDF). Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30.

[FOOTNOTEJoaquín_Montes_Giraldo1992527-84] Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.

[FOOTNOTEBetancourt_Arango1993285–286-85] Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.

[FOOTNOTEThompson1959-86] Thompson (1959).

[87] International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63751-1. p. 16: …so that [t̞] could be used to indicate an articulation like that of an alveolar plosive but one in which complete closure is not achieved, yielding a fricative-like sound (but lacking the grooved tongue shape of [s]) as in some Irish English pronunciations of the sound at the end of right.

[chenphon-88] 1 2 Konyak, Hoipo; Mulder, Mijke (2022). "A brief outline of Chen phonology". Proceedings of the 12th Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium. Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium 2022. Chiang Mai: Payap University. pp. 709–721. Retrieved 23 April 2026.

[FOOTNOTELoakesMcDougall20071445–1448-90] 1 2 Loakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.

[FOOTNOTEJonesMcDougall2009-91] Jones & McDougall (2009).

[FOOTNOTEHickey1984234–235-92] Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.

[FOOTNOTEFiasson2016-93] Fiasson (2016).

[FOOTNOTEMarottaBarth2005385-94] Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.

[FOOTNOTEWatson2007352–353-95] Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.

[FOOTNOTEBuizza201116–28-96] 1 2 Buizza (2011), pp. 16–28.

[FOOTNOTEGrønnum2005139-97] 1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 139.

[FOOTNOTERögnvaldsson201736-98] Rögnvaldsson (2017), p. 36.

[FOOTNOTEHaugen1958fn._10-99] Haugen (1958), fn. 10.

[FOOTNOTELaver1994263-100] 1 2 3 4 Laver (1994), p. 263.

[FOOTNOTELaver1994263–264-101] 1 2 Laver (1994), pp. 263–264.

[FOOTNOTEJesusShadle2005-102] 1 2 Jesus & Shadle (2005).

[FOOTNOTEYavuzBalcı201125-103] 1 2 Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.

[FOOTNOTECandiaRogers2026279–280-104] 1 2 Candia & Rogers (2026), pp. 279–280.

[CM199-105] Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.

[FOOTNOTECollinsMees200375-106] 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 75.

[FOOTNOTEÁrnason2011115-107] 1 2 Árnason (2011), p. 115.

[FOOTNOTEShimoji200844,_48-108] 1 2 Shimoji (2008), pp. 44, 48.

[FOOTNOTESadowskySalamanca201179-109] Sadowsky & Salamanca (2011), p. 79.

[FOOTNOTESadowsky201578–79,_86–87-110] 1 2 Sadowsky (2015), pp. 78–79, 86–87.

Authority control databases
National	United States Israel
Other	Yale LUX

Voiceless alveolar fricative

Voiceless alveolar sibilant

Features

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Alveolar

Retracted alveolar

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative

Features

Occurrence

Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative

Voiceless alveolar approximant

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links