There are no dialects in strict sense,[clarification needed] but three local varieties (tuyu) can be found: Suonanba (c.50% of all Dongxiang speakers), Wangjiaji (c. 30% of all Dongxiang speakers) and Sijiaji (c. 20% of all Dongxiang speakers).
Phonology
Compared to other Mongolic languages, there is no vowel harmony, except for a handful of suffixes. However, the rules governing this phenomenon are by far not as strict as those of Mongolian.
The aspirated stops /pʰ,tʰ,kʰ,qʰ/, at varying degrees, tend to be affricated before close vowels as [p͡ɸʰ,t͡θʰ,k͡xʰ,q͡χʰ] respectively:
/qʰ/→[q͡χʰ]: This has the most noticeable affrication, seen in ghudogvo[q͡χʰutoˈʁo] (knife).
/pʰ/→[p͡ɸʰ]: Still commonly affricated, e.g. pixie[p͡ɸʰi̥ˈɕi̯ɛ] (belt).
/tʰ/→[t͡θʰ]: Affrication is salient, but seems to be more apparent with [ɯ] than [u], as in tiigha[t͡θʰɯ̥ˈqɑ] (chicken).
/kʰ/→[k͡xʰ]: This consonant is the least affricated, but is still attested in kiqie[k͡xʰi̥ˈt͡ɕi̯ɛ] (to lie down).
Likewise, before non-close vowels aspirated stops do not show affrication e.g. ta[tʰɑ] (to guess), korolon[kʰoroˈlõŋ] (footprint), or khalun[qʰɑˈlũŋ] (hot).
Phonemes /t͡sʰ,t͡s,ʐ/ are only found in loanwords:
/t͡sʰ/ is only found in Chinese-derived words, as in cai/t͡sʰɑj/ (vegetable; from Chinese 菜cài). It is frequently deaffricated to the native [s].
/t͡s/ is found within Chinese and Persian borrowings, with Persian زمینzamin (earth) rendered as zemin/t͡səˈmi(ŋ)/.
/ʐ/ in the same way is seen in words of Chinese and Arabic origin, as in renshen/ʐəŋˈʂəŋ/ (ginseng; Chinese 人參rénshēn).
The nasals /n,ŋ/ assimilate to [m] before labials, as in unba/unˈpɑ/→[ũmˈpɑ] (to swim) and banban/pɑŋˈpɑŋ/→[pɑ̃mˈpɑ̃ŋ] (cudgel) respectively. /ŋ/ also has another allophone [ɴ] before uvulars, cf. zhangha/t͡ʂɑŋˈqɑ/→[t͡ʂɑ̃ɴˈqɑ] (walnut).
Nasals are commonly deleted in the coda, which is an areal feature around the border between Gansu and Qinghai. Although it is not restricted to word-final situations, it is rarer to find deletion there as the following consonantal onsets somehow reinforce the nasal. It should also be noted that vowels preceding nasal consonants are also nasalized themselves.
The central approximants /j,w/ are fricativized [ʝ,v] when syllable-initial, mainly before close vowels. /w/ can further be found before front vowels and even low back vowels. An example of fricatization for each is yibai[ˈʝipɛi̯] (one hundred) and weila[və̝i̯ˈlɑ] (to cry). This phenomenon can also be found in neighboring languages, including Dungan and Monguor.
/ʁ/, which is usually realized as a fricative, can be pronounced as an approximant [ʁ̞] in fast speech.
/r/ is usually a trill, and length is dependent on the speed of speech; similarly in rapid speech it can become a tap [ɾ].
Vowels
Dongxiang has 7 vowels. Unlike other neighboring Mongolic languages, it has limited vowel harmony and no distinctions of vowel length.
/i/, which is usually a close front vowel, has a backened allophone [ɨ] after retroflex consonants, and a slightly opened one [ɪ] after alveolar affricates and fricatives. Compare chi[t͡ʂʰɨ] (you [2nd sing.]) with misi[miˈsɪ] (to fly).
Close vowels are devoiced when in an unstressed initial syllable and between voiceless consonants, for example: chighin[t͡ʂʰɨ̥ˈqə̃ŋ] (ear), sidara[sɪ̥tɑˈrɑ] (to catch fire) and khidun[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈtũŋ] (hard). This is not the case though before a voiced consonant, especially if it is of native Mongolic origin, as evidenced with chila[t͡ʂʰɨˈlɑ] (to be exhausted) and suma[suˈmɑ] (arrow).
In Chinese loans, devoicing is optional, i.e. chugui (cupboard; from 櫥櫃chúguì) can be pronounced either [t͡ʂʰu̥ˈku̯ə̝i̯] or [t͡ʂʰuˈku̯ə̝i̯].
The mid-central vowel /ə/ has also been recorded voiceless in the aforementioned environment: pese[pʰə̥ˈsɛ] (again).
Devoicing of /i/ can also occur regardless of the following sound and in non-initial syllables, under the condition it occurs after /s/: basi[ˈpɑsɪ̥] (tiger) or kewosila[kʰəˌwɑsɪ̥ˈlɑ] (children). Interestingly, it is not often the case, as in bositu[pʷosɪˈtʰu] (pregnant).
/ɚ/ is always a syllabified as its own, as in ershi[ɚ.ʂɨ] (twenty), with the exception of one Arabic loanword with glottal /h/ as the onset: ruhher[ʐu.hɚ] (spirit; from رُوحrūḥ).
/o/ is often pronounced with a considerable degree of labialization [ʷo], however this can be inconsistent, even in the same utterance; cf. olien[ʷoˈli̯ɛ̃n] (cloud) vs. onghono[õɴqõˈno] (to shout).
When stressed, /ə/ is typically realized as mid-front [ɛ]: enzhegve[ə̃nt͡ʂəˈʁɛ] (donkey). Before /ŋ/, [ɤ] is used instead: amen[ɑˈmɤ̃ŋ] (rice). Otherwise in unstressed syllables it is mid-central [ə].
[ɑ] is typically an open back vowel, e.g. apa[ɑˈpʰɑ] (barley), but before alveolar nasals it is fronted to [æ]; an example is dan[tæ̃n] (carrying pole with loads). Before velar nasals, as in dan[tɑ̃ŋ] ([political] party), the back form is used.
Glides
Although true diphthongal sequences (i.e. complex vowel combinations) do not exist in Santa, combinations with the vowels /u,ə,ɑ/ and the glides/j,w/ do. The glides are phonetically realized as non-syllabic vowels [i̯,u̯] and the vowels have the following phonetic realizations below, regardless of any previous allophonic rules as mentioned above.
Glide/vowel combinations
Vowel + Glide
Glide + Vowel
Additional
/j/
/w/
/u/
/j/
—
/ju/
—
—
/w/
—
—
—
—
/ə/
/j/
/əj/
/jə/
—
—
/w/
/əw/
—
/wəj/
—
/ɑ/
/j/
/ɑj/
/jɑ/
—
/jɑw/
/w/
/ɑw/
/wɑ/
/wɑj/
—
Distinct phonetic vowel realizations (note that vowels in other environments take the cardinal form):
/ə/:
Before /j/, the vowel is raised to [ə̝], e.g. khighei[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈqə̝i̯] (pig), falling somewhere in between [ə] and [i].
If also after /w/, the vowel is optionally dropped, as in ghuilu[qu̯(ə̝)i̯ˈlu] (to become).
After /j/, it is pronounced like stressed [ɛ]; for instance nie[ni̯ɛ] (one) or bierei[pi̯ɛˈri] (wife).
Before /w/, backness is often applied so that it varies between [ə~ɤ]: hotou[xʷoˈtəu̯~xʷoˈtɤu̯] (maggot).
/ɑ/:
Before /j/, it may be raised, varying from [ɑ~ɛ], see bai[pɑi̯~pɛi̯] (to stop), kuaisun[kʰu̯ɑi̯ˈsũŋ~kʰu̯ɛi̯ˈsũŋ] (navel).
Before /w/, the vowel is often raised and backed, ranging from [ɑ~o] in nao[nɑu̯~nou̯] (to hit the mark), oqiao[ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ɑu̯~ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ou̯] (old).
Phonotactics
The general syllable template for Santa is (C)(G)V(G/N), where the brackets represent optional phonemes. C represents any consonant apart from /ŋ/ or a glide, G is one of the glides /j,w/, V is a vowel and G/N is either a glide or a nasal /n,ŋ/ (occasionally also /r/). However, there are further constraints to this scheme:
The obstruents/pʰ,qʰ,f,x,h/ in words of Monogolic origin can only be found at the beginning of words.
Also, /ɕ/ can occur at any position syllable-initially, but not after nasals of glides.
/r,ʁ/ on the other hand can only occur after vowels. It is also possible for /ʁ/ to occur after nasals, but not /r/ due to the sonorant rule.
/ʂ,ɕ,t͡ɕ,m/ can occur word-initially but between syllables only after vowels.
It is impossible for non-compounded words of Mongolic origin for a sonorant (with the exception of the glide [i̯]) to follow a nasal after a syllable boundary. However, three exceptions exist: manlou[mɑ̃ŋˈləu̯] (forehead), danlei[tæ̃nˈləi̯] (palate) and chanlie[t͡ʂʰæ̃nˈli̯ə] (to listen).
Words borrowed from Mandarin Chinese do not follow this rule, seen with rinmin[ʐəŋˈmin] (people; from 人民rénmín).
Stress
The majority of words in Santa are stressed on the final syllable. Examples include yawu/jɑˈwu/ (to walk), funiegvan/funjəˈʁɑŋ/ (fox) and agven/ɑˈʁəŋ/ (village). Stress also shifts to the suffix when added to a word: funiegvan-ni/funjəʁɑŋˈni/ (fox, genitive case), agven-de/ɑʁəŋˈdə/ (village, locative case).
However, several exceptions to this rule exist:
Certain enclitics fall outside the domain of word-level stress. When they attach, the stress remains on the final syllable of the root rather than shifting to the absolute end of the word, as seen in yawu=ne/jɑˈwunə/ (will walk/walks, imperfective) and tomo=ghala/tʰoˈmoqɑlɑ/ (hammer, instrumental). However, not every clitic follows this rule.
When the disyllabic suffixes +jiwo and +senu are added, they attract stress to their initial syllable, resulting in penultimate stress for the word as a whole: jawu+jiwo/jɑwuˈt͡ʂiwo/ (to walk, progressive) and ire+senu/irəˈsənu/ (as soon as one comes).
Similarly, basi/ˈpɑsi/ (tiger) and bosi/ˈposi/ (cloth) are stressed on the initial syllable. There is a minimal pair with bosi, where the stress on the final syllable (i.e., /poˈsi/) means 'to wake up'.
Loanwords may also violate the final stress rule; this is discussed below.
In loanwords
In Chinese loanwords, stress is not predictable; this is likely due to the tonal influence from the original pronunciation. However, these tones are based on the dialects of the Hui people rather than the standard dialect. Examples of non-final stress include hushi/ˈxuʂi/ (nurse; from 护士hùshì), daozi/ˈdɑwt͡si/ (rice paddy; from 稻子dàozi) and dadou/ˈdɑdəw/ (soybean; from 大豆dàdòu). Minimal pairs, though uncommon, also exist. One example is shizi/ˈʂit͡si/ (persimmon; from 柿子shìzi) and shizi/ʂiˈt͡si/ (lion; from 狮子shīzi).
There are a number of Arabic loanwords which also violate ultimate stress; these include aghili/ˈɑqili/ (wisdom; from عَقِيْلʿaqīl), mehheri/ˈməhəri/ (dowry; from مَهْرmahr), ghalebu/qɑˈləbu/ (body, form; from قَالَبqālab), etc.
Some words with unknown origin may also stress on other syllables, including tonghori/ˈtʰoŋqori/ (wild goose), dawala/ˈtɑwɑlɑ/ (urinary bladder) and bawa/ˈpɑwɑ/ (great-grandfather).
Grammar
DIR:directional
SIM:simultaneous
Morphology
Santa is an agglutinative, strictly suffixing language.
Plural marking
Plurality is primarily marked on human and animate nouns. There are three primary plural suffixes, conditioned by the lexical class of the noun:
Marker
Class
Example
-la
General plural for nouns and pronouns
ghoni
sheep
→
ghoni-la
sheep(s)
ghoni → ghoni-la
sheep {} sheep(s)
-sila / -sla
Restricted to certain nouns and pronouns
oqin
girl
→
oqin-sila
girls
oqin → oqin-sila
girl {} girls
-cai
Restricted to kinship terms
gajijiao
brother
→
gajijiao-cai
brothers
gajijiao → gajijiao-cai
brother {} brothers
Noun phrase
Cases
Santa nominals inflect for six primary cases. In addition to these six core cases, certain directional and locational enclitics (like the aspectual -re and locative–prosecutive -gvun) frequently attach to nouns to express spatial relationships.
Marker
Case
Example
Marker
Case
Example
-∅
Nominative
morei
horse
holu-we
run-PRF
morei holu-we
horse run-PRF
"The horse ran."
-le
Comitative
chi
2SG
ibura-le
Ibura-COM
hhantu
together
echi-∅
go-IMP
chi ibura-le hhantu echi-∅
2SG Ibura-COM together go-IMP
"You go together with Ibura."
-ni (rarely -yi)
Genitive–Accusative
bula-ni
spring-GEN
usu
water
bula-ni usu
spring-GEN water
"spring water"
-ghala / -guala
Sociative–Instrumental
khidei-ghala
Chinese-INST
kielie-∅
speak-IMP
khidei-ghala kielie-∅
Chinese-INST speak-IMP
"Speak in Chinese."
-de
Dative–Locative–Benefactive
ula-de
mountain-DAT
khirei-∅
climb-IMP
ula-de khirei-∅
mountain-DAT climb-IMP
"Climb the mountain."
-re
Directional (Aspectual)
bi
1SG
chima-re
2SG-DIR
sana-ne
settle.accounts-IPFV
bi chima-re sana-ne
1SG 2SG-DIR settle.accounts-IPFV
"I want to settle accounts with you."
-se
Ablative–Comparative
udani
last.year
hon-se
year-ABL
gao-we
good-PRF
udani hon-se gao-we
last.year year-ABL good-PRF
"better than last year"
-gvun
Locative–Prosecutive
moron
river
ghizha-gvun
bank-PROS
nie
one
uzhe-∅
look-IMP
moron ghizha-gvun nie uzhe-∅
river bank-PROS one look-IMP
Look along the river.
Possession and reflexivity
Possession between two noun phrases is expressed by placing the possessor in the genitive case (-ni) before the possessed head noun. Santa also has postposed possessive pronoun clitics and dedicated reflexive/possessive markers.
Word
Alternative forms
Meaning
morei-mini
-miyi, -miy
My horse
morei-matanni
-matayi, -matay
Our (inclusive) horse
morei-bijienni
-bijieyi, -bijiey
Our (exclusive) horse
morei-chini
-chiyi, -chiy
Your horse
morei-tani
(also -tayi, -tay)
Your (plural) horse
morei-ni
—
His/her/their horse
The reflexive markers -ne and -nugvun are affixed to the possessed noun to indicate that the possessor is the subject of the clause (e.g., chi gaga-ne uru "you call your [own] elder brother").
Pronoun declension
Santa pronouns differentiate between inclusive and exclusive first-person plural, a feature retained despite heavy contact with Mandarin.
1st person
Case
Singular
Plural
Exclusive
Inclusive
Nominative
bi / orun (quotation)
bijien
matan / oruntan (quotation)
Genitive-Accusative
mi-ni / nama-ni
bijien-ni
matan-ni / ma-ni
Dative-Locative
nama-de / ma-de
bijien-de
matan-de
Ablative-Comparative
nama-se / ma-se
bijien-se
matan-se
Comitative
nama-le / ma-le
bijien-le
matan-le
Sociative-Instrumental
bi-ghala
bijien-ghala
matan-ghala
2nd person
Case
Singular
Plural
Nominative
chi
ta / tan
Genitive-Accusative
chi-ni
ta-ni
Dative-Locative
chima-de
tan-de
Ablative-Comparative
chima-se / cha-se
tan-se
Comitative
chima-le
tan-le
Sociative-Instrumental
chi-ghala
ta-ghala
3rd person
Case
Singular
Plural
Nominative
hhe
tere
egven
hhela
terela
egvenla
Genitive-Accusative
hhesila
teresila
egvesila
Dative-Locative
hhe-ni
tere-ni
egen-ni
hhela-ni
terela-ni
egvenla-ni
Ablative-Comparative
hhe-nde
tere-(n)de / ten-de
egven-de
hhela-de
terela-de
egvenla-de
Comitative
hhe-nse
tere-(n)se
egven-se
hhela-se
terela-se
egvenla-se
Sociative-Instrumental
hhe-nle
tere-le
egven-le
hhela-le
terela-le
egvenla-le
Verbal complex
The Santa verbal complex distinguishes between finite and non-finite verbs. Finite verbs must occur in sentence-final position and are obligatorily marked for aspect or mood. Non-finite (medial) verbs participate in clause chaining and take switch-event (converbial) markers indicating their temporal, semantic or participant relationship to the main finite verb.
Voice
Voice marking alters the valency or participant relationship of the verb stem. Santa lacks a morphological active/passive voice distinction, relying instead on causatives and reciprocals.
Particle
Voice
Example
-∅
Active
echi-∅-we
go-ACT-PRF
echi-∅-we
go-ACT-PRF
"went"
-gva
Causative
bai-gva-we
stand-CAUS-PRF
bai-gva-we
stand-CAUS-PRF
"established (caused to stand)"
-ndu
Collective/reciprocal
ijie-ndu-we
eat-RECP-PRF
ijie-ndu-we
eat-RECP-PRF
"ate together"
Finite verbs (Aspect and Mood)
Finite verbs mark the absolute endpoint of a sentence and denote aspect instead of tense.
Particle
Category
Example
-we
Perfective aspect
bi
1SG
baza-de
Linxia-DAT
echi-we
go-PRF
bi baza-de echi-we
1SG Linxia-DAT go-PRF
I have gone to Linxia.
-ne
Imperfective aspect
chi
2SG
khala
where
echi-ne?
go-IPFV
chi khala echi-ne?
2SG where go-IPFV
Where are you going?
-zhiwe (also -zho)
Progressive aspect
ana-miyi
mother-1SG.POSS
budan
meal
gie-zhiwe
make-PROG
ana-miyi budan gie-zhiwe
mother-1SG.POSS meal make-PROG
My mom is cooking.
-∅
Imperative mood
chi
2SG
ijie-∅
eat-IMP
chi ijie-∅
2SG eat-IMP
You eat.
-ye / -gie
Desiderative mood
matanghala
1PL.INCL.two
yawu-ye
go-DES
matanghala yawu-ye
1PL.INCL.two go-DES
Let's go.
Non-finite verbs (Switch-events / Converbs)
Medial verbs are used extensively in clause chaining. These suffixes denote whether the subsequent clause represents a simultaneous, sequential, or conditional event.
Particle
Function
Example
-zhi
Simultaneous (same subject)
shira-zhi
roast-SIM
ijie-we
eat-PRF
shira-zhi ijie-we
roast-SIM eat-PRF
"[I] roasted [it] and ate [it]."
-dene (-de)
Sequential (different event)
chi
2SG
ijie-dene
eat-SEQ
bi
1SG
ijie-ye
eat-DES
chi ijie-dene bi ijie-ye
2SG eat-SEQ 1SG eat-DES
"After you eat, I will eat."
-le
Purposive
bi
1SG
nie
one
uzhe-le
look-PURP
ire-we
come-PRF
bi nie uzhe-le ire-we
1SG one look-PURP come-PRF
"I came in order to take a look."
-se
Conditional
ghura
rain
bao-se
fall-COND
bi
1SG
ulie
IRR.NEG
ire-ne
come-IPFV
ghura bao-se bi ulie ire-ne
rain fall-COND 1SG IRR.NEG come-IPFV
"If it rains, I won't come."
-tala
Terminative (limit)
khara
dark
olu-tala
become-TERM
wilie
work
gie-we
do-PRF
khara olu-tala wilie gie-we
dark become-TERM work do-PRF
"[I] worked until it got dark."
-senu
Concessive
eqiemagva
morning
bosi-senu
get.up-CONC
shu
book
uzhe-zho
look-PROG
eqiemagva bosi-senu shu uzhe-zho
morning get.up-CONC book look-PROG
"Read a book after getting up in the morning."
Deverbal nominalizers
Verbs can be nominalized to function as relative clauses or noun phrase arguments.
Particle
Tense/Aspect focus
Example
-san (-sen)
Perfective nominalizer
ene
this
baodei
wheat
bolu-san-we
become.ripe-P.NM-PRF
ene baodei bolu-san-we
this wheat become.ripe-P.NM-PRF
"This wheat is ripe."
-ku / -wu
Imperfective nominalizer
echi-ku
go-I.NM
mo
road
gholo-we
long-PRF
echi-ku mo gholo-we
go-I.NM road long-PRF
"The road that needs to be taken is long."
-chin
Progressive nominalizer
enende
here
sao-chin
live-PR.NM
kun
person
wai-nu
exist-Q
u-we
NEG.COP-PRF
enende sao-chin kun wai-nu u-we
here live-PR.NM person exist-Q NEG.COP-PRF
"Is there anyone living here?"
Existential and copula verbs
Santa has two existential/locative verbs (bi and wi) and the native copula wo. Due to intensive contact, the Mandarin Chinese copula 是shì (spelled shi in Santa) has been borrowed and is frequently used alongside or in hybrid equational constructions with the native wo.
Form
bi
wi
Active
bai-ne
wi-we
Past nominalizer
bi-san
wi-san
Future nominalizer
bi-ku
wi-ku
Present nominalizer
bi-chin
wi-chin
Speculative
bi-mu
—
Recollective
bi-lai
—
Syntax
In common with other Mongolic languages, Dongxiang is traditionally an SOV language. However, in the Linxia dialect area, under intense contact influence of the Mandarin Chinese dialects spoken by the neighbouring Hui people, sentences exhibiting SVO alignment have also been adopted.
While Mongolic languages use nouns natively as measure words, Santa has borrowed Chinese numeral classifiers (such as gie (from Mandarin 个gè), ganzi, and kozi), producing a hybrid quantifying structure.
Numerals
While numbers up to ten continue from its native Mongolic roots, numbers above have been heavily supplanted by Mandarin loans. These include 30 (sanshi) and 40 (sishi). For 20, both the native khorun/qʰoˈruŋ/ and the borrowed ershi/ˈɚʂi/ are used.
Numeral
Dongxiang
IPA
Classical Mongolian
Numeral
Dongxiang
IPA
Classical Mongolian
1
nie
/njə/
nigen
11
shiyi
/ʂiji/
arban nigen
2
ghua
/qwɑ/
qoyar
12
shier
/ʂiɚ/
arban qoyar
3
ghuran
/quˈrɑŋ/
ghurban
20
khorun / ershi
/qʰoˈruŋ/ / /ˈɚʂi/
qorin
4
jieron
/t͡ɕjəˈroŋ/
dörben
30
sanshi
/sanʂi/
ghučin
5
tawun
/tʰaˈwuŋ/
tabun
40
sishi
/siʂi/
döčin
6
dzigvon
/t͡ʂiˈʁoŋ/
jirghughan
50
wushi
/wuʂi/
tabin
7
dolon
/toˈloŋ/
dologhan
60
liushi
/liuʂi/
jiran
8
naiman
/nɑjˈmɑŋ/
naiman
70
qishi
/t͡ɕʰiʂi/
dalan
9
yesun
/jəˈsuŋ/
yisün
80
bashi
/paʂi/
nayan
10
hharan
/hɑˈrɑŋ/
arban
90
jiushi
/t͡ɕiuʂi/
yeren
Writing system
Knowledge of Arabic is widespread among the Sarta and as a result, they often use the Arabic script to write down their language informally (cf. the Xiao'erjing system that was used by Hui people); however, this has been little investigated by scholars. As of 2003[update], the official Latin alphabet for Dongxiang, developed on the basis of the Monguor alphabet, remained in the experimental stage:
Consonants
Letter
IPA
Letter
IPA
Letter
IPA
b
/p/
g
/k/
x
/ɕ/
p
/pʰ/
k
/kʰ/
zh
/t͡ʂ/
m
/m/
gh
/q/
ch
/t͡ʂʰ/
f
/f/
kh
/qʰ/
sh
/ʂ/
d
/t/
h
/x/
z
/t͡s/
t
/tʰ/
gv
/ʁ/
c
/t͡sʰ/
n
/n,ŋ/
hh
/h/
s
/s/
l
/l/
j
/t͡ɕ/
w
/w/
r
/r,ʐ/
q
/t͡ɕʰ/
y
/j/
↑Syllable final, n is pronounced as /n/ before ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩, and /ŋ/ before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩ and ⟨u⟩. Syllable initial is always /n/.
↑r is pronounced as /ʐ/ in Chinese and Arabic loanwords.
Vowels
Letter
IPA
Letter
IPA
Letter
IPA
a
/ɑ/
u
/u/
ie
/jə/
e
/ə/
ai
/ɑj/
iu
/ju/
er
/ɚ/
ei
/əj/
ua
/wɑ/
i
/i/
ao
/ɑw/
ui
/wəj/
ii
/ɯ/
ou
/əw/
iao
/jɑw/
o
/o/
ia
/jɑ/
uai
/wɑj/
↑When the preceding consonant is gh, kh, h or gv, this vowel is pronounced the same as ii.
There are about 20,000 people in the north-eastern part Dongxiang County, who self-identify as Dongxiang or Hui people who do not speak Dongxiang, but natively speak a Dongxiang-influenced form of Mandarin Chinese. The linguist Mei W. Lee-Smith calls this the "Tangwang language" (Chinese:唐汪话), based on the names of the two largest villages (Tangjia and Wangjia, parts of Tangwang Town) where it is spoken and argues it is a creolized language. According to Lee-Smith, the Tangwang language uses mostly Mandarin words and morphemes with Dongxiang grammar. Besides Dongxiang loanwords, Tangwang also has a substantial number of Arabic and Persian loanwords.
Like Standard Mandarin, Tangwang is a tonal language, but grammatical particles, which are typically borrowed from Mandarin, but are used in the way Dongxiang morphemes would be used in Dongxiang, do not carry tones.
For example, while the Mandarin plural suffix -men (们) has only very restricted usage (it can be used with personal pronouns and some nouns related to people), Tangwang uses it, in the form -m, universally, the way Dongxiang would use its plural suffix -la. Mandarin pronoun ni (你) can be used in Tangwang as a possessive suffix (meaning "your").
Unlike Mandarin, but like Dongxiang, Tangwang has grammatical cases as well (however only four of them, unlike eight in Dongxiang).
Bao, Saren (包萨仁) (2006), 从语言接触看东乡语和临夏话的语序变化[Sequential Changes in Dongxiang Language and Linxia Dialects from the View of Linguistic Contact], Journal of the Second Northwest University for Nationalities (Social Science Edition) (2), ISSN1008-2883, archived from the original on 2011-07-13
Wei, Li Xue; Stuart, Kevin (1989), "Population and Culture of the Mongols, Tu, Baoan, Dongxiang, and Yugu in Gansu", Mongolian Studies, 12 (The Owen Lattimore Memorial Issue), Mongolia Society: 71–93, JSTOR43194234
