She Chinese

Shanke
山客话
Native toFujian, Zhejiang
EthnicityShanke (She)
Native speakers
400,000 (2002)
Early forms
Chinese characters
Language codes
ISO 639-3None (mis)
Linguasphere79-AAA-gbf

Shanke dialect (simplified Chinese: 山客话; traditional Chinese: 山客話; pinyin: shānkèhuà; lit. 'mountain Hakka dialect'; pha̍k-fa-sṳ: sânhakfa), also known as Shanha dialect (simplified Chinese: 山哈话; traditional Chinese: 山哈話; pinyin: shānhǎhuà) or She dialect (simplified Chinese: 畲话; traditional Chinese: 畲話; pinyin: shēhuà; pha̍k-fa-sṳ: chhiàfa), is the native Chinese language spoken by the vast majority of She (Shanke) people that is closely related to Hakka Chinese. Shanke speakers are located mainly in Fujian and Zhejiang provinces of Southeastern China, with smaller numbers of speakers in a few locations of Jiangxi (in Guixi and Yanshan County), Guangdong (in Chaozhou and Fengshun County) and Anhui (in Ningguo) provinces.

The Chinese government has not officially adopted a clear nomenclature distinguishing the Chinese Shanke dialect from the non-Chinese Hmongic She language. In its official introduction to the She ethnic group published by the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, the Shanke dialect is instead referred to simply as the "She language (Chinese: 畲语; lit. 'She language')", rather than as "Shanke dialect (Chinese: 山客话; lit. 'Shanke dialect')" or "She dialect (Chinese: 畲话; lit. 'She dialect')". As such, the two languages should not be confused. The non-Chinese Hmongic She language is not given any name at all, but is merely described as "closely related to the 'Bunu' language of the Yao people (belonging to the Hmongic languages)". This is quite different from the precise official naming of the languages of other ethnic minorities, such as the Uyghurs and Tibetans.

Linguist Luo Meizhen [zh] published a journal article specifically noting that there has been considerable inconsistency among scholars in the naming of this language. Owing to the absence of an official standardised name, this language has been referred to inconsistently across different publications. Some scholars call it the "She language (畲语)", while others refer to it as "She dialect (畲话)". However, these are all exonyms. The only designation that can be established with certainty is the endonym Shanke dialect (山客话), which is referred to by its native speakers.

History

During the Tang dynasty, Shanke speakers lived in the Jiangxi-Guangdong-Fujian border region. Afterwards, they moved to their present locations further to the northeast.

Classification

Although speakers of the Chinese Shanke dialect and speakers of the Hmongic She language (畲语, also known as Ho Ne) are both officially classified as members of the She ethnic group by People's Republic of China, Shanke actually contains very few words derived from Hmong-Mien languages. Instead, it has a relatively larger number of loanwords from the Kra-Dai languages. This pattern is consistent with that of Southern Min and Hakka.

Taking the Shanke dialect spoken in Shanyangge, Fujian as an example, the language can be divided into four principle layers. The first consists of elements shared with Hakka. The second and third reflect influences from Southern Min and Standard Chinese respectively. The fourth may derive either from the original substrate language once spoken by the She people or from new vocabulary developed during their history.

Although Shanke is classified linguistically as a variety of Hakka by many scholars, some member of the She ethnic group, out of a strong attachment to their ethnic identity, prefer to believe that the She people have an independent language of their own. As a result, they are reluctant to accept the classification of their language as a variety of Hakka.

Some linguists consider Shanke to be a variety of Hakka Chinese, while others consider it to be an unclassified variety of Chinese that has received some influence from Hakka and is part of Hakka. Hiroki Nakanishi (2010) considers Shanke to be a Hakka dialect that may have a She language (Hmongic) substratum. However, Zhao (2004) considers Shanke to be an independent branch of Chinese, and that it should not be classified within Hakka.

Depending on their locations, Shanke dialects have been variously influenced by Hakka, Gan, Wu, and Min.

Shanke dialect and She language speakers have separate histories and identities, although both are officially classified by the Chinese government as She people. The Dongjia of Majiang County, Guizhou are also officially classified as She people, but speak a Western Hmongic language closely related to Chong'anjiang Miao (重安江苗语), which is different from both Shanke dialect and She language.

Dialects

You (2002:31-35) divides Shanke into 9 dialectal areas (fangyan qu 方言区), and with respective locations and speaker demographics from You (2002) listed as well. The Eastern Fujian and Southern Zhejiang dialectal areas each have over 100,000 speakers, while the smallest dialectal areas are in Guangdong and Jiangxi, with each having only a few thousand speakers. Altogether, there are more than 400,000 Shanke speakers in China.

In Anhui Province, there is also a Shanke dialect spoken by about 2,400 people in Yunti She Ethnic Township (云梯畲族乡), Ningguo City that has been influenced by Lower Yangtze Mandarin.

You (2002) provides a comparative vocabulary list for the following 13 datapoints. The Zhebei dialectal area 浙北方言区 has not been included by You (2002).

  1. Fu'an 福安, Ningde, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区)
  2. Fuding 福鼎, Ningde, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区; includes Xiamen She Ethnic Township 硖门畲族乡)
  3. Luoyuan 罗源, Fuzhou, Fujian (Mindong dialectal area 闽东方言区)
  4. Sanming 三明, Fujian (Minzhong dialectal area 闽中方言区)
  5. Shunchang 顺昌, Nanping 南平, Fujian (Minbei dialectal area 闽北方言区)
  6. Hua'an 华安, Zhangzhou 华安, southern Fujian (Minnan dialectal area 闽北方言区)
  7. Guixi 贵溪, Yingtan 鹰潭, Jiangxi (Gandong dialectal area 赣东方言区)
  8. Cangnan 苍南, Wenzhou 温州, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
  9. Jingning 景宁, Lishui 丽水, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
  10. Lishui 丽水, Zhejiang (Zhe'nan dialectal area 浙南方言区)
  11. Longyou 龙游, Quzhou 衢州, Zhejiang (Zhezhong dialectal area 浙中方言区; includes Muchen She Ethnic Township 沐尘畲族乡)
  12. Chaozhou 潮州, Guangdong (Yuedong dialectal area 粤东方言区)
  13. Fengshun 丰顺, Meizhou 梅州, Guangdong (Yuedong dialectal area 粤东方言区)

Distribution

The following maps show ethnic She townships and other administrative divisions (highlighted in magenta) in Zhejiang, Fujian, and Jiangxi provinces. The She people of these three provinces speak Shanke, while the She of central Guangdong and Guizhou speak Hmongic languages.

The most Shanke speakers are located in Ningde Prefecture, Fujian, and Wenzhou and Lishui Prefectures, Zhejiang. Smaller communities of Shanke speakers are located in central Zhejiang, southern Fujian, the mountainous interior of western Fujian, southeastern Anhui, eastern Guangdong, and northeastern Jiangxi near its border with Fujian. It is not known whether Shanke is spoken by She people living in central and southern Jiangxi.

Phonology

Shanke is a very dialectally uniform language. Like many southern Chinese languages, it has syllables with stop codas, traditionally considered as part of a separate tone class. Much like its sister branch Hakka Chinese, it has the same three nasal codas as well as three stop codas. However, the /k/ coda has evolved into a glottal stop.

Consonants

In addition to the consonants listed below, Shanke also has a null initial, often realized as a glottal stop.

Labial Dental Alveopalatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive tenuis p t k ʔ
aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ
Affricate tenuis ts (tʃ)
aspirated tsʰ (tʃʰ)
Fricative median s (ʃ) h
lateral (ɬ)
Approximant l    
  1. ↑ This consonant only appears phonemically in syllable coda position.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Consonants in parentheses are present in only some dialects.

Some dialects of Shanke in eastern Fujian (including the Fú'ān and Fúdǐng varieties) have the initial voiceless lateral fricative ɬ- where other Shanke dialects have an initial s-.

Only a limited number of consonants can act as a coda, including the nasals and the plain labial, dental, and glottal stops.

Vowels

Front Central Back
unrounded rounded
Close iyu
Close-mid e(ø)o
Open-mid (ɛ)ɔ
Open a
  1. ↑ This vowel is present in most dialects.
  2. 1 2 Vowels in parentheses are present in only some dialects.

The syllabic coronal consonant /z̩/, frequently known in Chinese linguistics as the apical vowel, is also found in some dialects of Shanke.

Tones

Shanke has 4 phonemic contour tones, which can be organized into the following 6 tone categories (You 2002:80-83); the Dark Going tone has merged into the Dark Level tone in the development of Shanke. Almost all Shanke dialects have identical tone values in each tone category, which are provided below.

Tone category
Level 平 Rising 上 Going 去 Entering 入
Tone
register 		Dark 陰 1. 陰平
[˦] (44)
Dark Level 		3. 上聲
[˧˥] (35)
Rising tone 		7. 陰入
[˥] (5)
Dark Entering
Light 陽 2. 陽平
[˨] (22)
Light Level 		6. 陽去
[˨˩]/[˦˨] (21 or 42)
Light Going 		8. 陽入
[˨] (2)
Light Entering
  1. ↑ Two dialects have different tone values: Yóu records the Huá'ān dialect as having [˧] (33) and Zhào records a Jǐngníng dialect as having a tone value of [˦˧] (43).
  2. ↑ Several dialects also have tone values of [˨˩˧] (213), and Zhào records a Jǐngníng dialect as having a tone value of [˧˨˥] (325).

The Tàiyuán dialect may have more divergent tone values. Hú recorded the dialect as having [˨˩˨] (212) for its Light Level tone, [˨˥] (25) on its Rising tone, and [˦] (4) for its Dark Entering tone.

Lexicon

Unique vocabulary

You (2002:183-216) notes that Shanke has many unique vocabulary items that have no cognates in Hakka, Gan, Wu, or any other Chinese language. Instead, many words have parallels in Hmong-Mien languages (You 2002:490-504), and in Tai and Kam-Sui languages (You 2002:458-489). Other words appear to have no parallels in any other language family or branch (You 2002:505-518).

Swadesh list

Below is a vocabulary table comparing Swadesh lists of Shanke (Fengshun), Hakka (Boluo), and Shanke (Boluo), from Gan (2011:188-191).

Standard Chinese
gloss		English
gloss		Shanke
(Fengshun)		Hakka
(Boluo)		She language
(Boluo)
我Iŋai1ŋai2vaŋ4
你youŋi1ŋi2muŋ2
我们weŋai1nai6ŋin2ŋai2ne6pa1
这thiskai6lia6lja3
那thathɔŋ6kai6u3
谁whomɔi6ŋin2nai5ŋin2pe4le2
什么whatmat7kai1mat7kai5ha5la5
不not—m1a6
全部all—tsʰiɛn2pu5tsʰjen5pʰu4
多manytɔ1tɔ1u5
一oneʒit7it2i6
二twoŋi6ŋi5u1
大bigtʰai6tʰai6vɔŋ2
长longtʃʰɔŋ2tsʰɔŋ2ka1ta3
小smallsai1sɛ5sɔŋ1
女人femalepu1ŋioŋ2ŋin2ŋi3ŋin2le2va3
男人malenam2ŋin2lam2ŋin2le2pu3
人personŋin2ŋin2le2
鱼fishŋiu2ŋ̩2pja4
鸟birdtau3tiau1lɔ4taŋ1
狗dogkou3kiu3kja3
虱子lousesɛt7ŋioŋ2set7taŋ5
树treeʃu6su6tɔŋ5
种子seed—tsuŋ3tsi3ka3lɔ1
叶子leafʒep3jap8pjɔŋ2
根rootkin1kʰjuŋ2
树皮bark—su5pi2tɔŋ5kʰu5
皮肤skinpʰi2pʰi2kʰu5
肉meatpi3ŋiuk7kwe2
血blood—hiet7si3
骨头bonekut7suŋ3kɔ3
脂肪fat———
鸡蛋egglan3kai1tsʰun2kwe1kja5
角horn—kɔk7kaŋ1
尾tailmui1mui1ka1tɔ3
羽毛feather—iuŋ2mau1pi1
头发hairtʰeu2mou1tʰiu2mau1kaŋ6kʰu5pi1
头headtʰeu2tʰiu2kaŋ6kʰu5
耳朵earŋi3kʰuŋ6ŋi3kuŋ1ka2kʰuŋ3
眼睛eyeȵian3kʰiʔ8ŋan2ka1kʰɔ3
鼻子nosepʰi6kuŋ6pʰi6ŋ̩3pju4
嘴mouthtsɔi1tsɔi5tjɔ2
牙齿toothŋa2tʃʰi3ŋa2mun3
舌头tongueʃet8ma2set8ma2pi6
爪子clawtsau3tsau3tsau5
脚footkioʔ7kiɔk7tɔ5
膝kneekioʔ7puʔ7tʰeu3tsʰit7tʰiu2tɔ5tʰju4kui3
手handʃeu3siu3kʰwa4
肚子bellytu3ʃi3tu3pʰat8ŋiɔ3ka3
脖子neckkiaŋ3kjaŋ3ka3kjen1
乳房breast—ŋiɛn5pʰɔŋ2ŋjuŋ3
心脏heartɕim1sim1fun1
肝liverkan1kɔn1fun1
喝drink—hɔt7hɔ6
吃eatʃiʔ8sit8luŋ2
咬biteŋieʔ8ŋau1tʰu6
看见seetʰai3tʰe3tʰau2mɔ6pʰu6
听见heartʰaŋ5tʰaŋ5tʰau2kuŋ5
知道knowtɛ1ti1pe1
睡sleepfun2sɔi5pɔ5
死die—si2tʰa4
杀killlaʔ7sat7ta5
游泳swim—ju2sui3ka1tu6kwe2
飞flypui1fui1ŋi5
走goham2tsiu2ka1pi1
来comelɔi2lɔi4lu4
躺lie—sɔi5ɔŋ2
坐sittsʰɔŋ3tsʰɔ1ŋjuŋ1
站standkʰi1kʰi1su3
给givepun1pi1puŋ1
说sayva6kɔŋ3kuŋ3kuŋ1
太阳sunŋiet8tʰeu2tʰai5jɔŋ1lɔ1kɔ3
月亮moonŋiɔt8hau6ŋiet7kɔŋ1le5
星星starsaŋ6sin1le5taŋ1
水waterʃui3sui3ɔŋ2
雨rainʃui3sui1luŋ1
石头stoneʃaʔ8sak8tʰiu2za1kɔ3
沙子sandʃa6sa1hja1
土地earthtʰi6tu2ta1
云cloudvun2vun2tsɔŋ1ɔŋ2
烟smokeien1iɛn1in1
火fire—fɔ3tʰɔ4
灰ashfɔi1fɔi1si3
烧burn—sau1fa3
路roadlu6lu6kja3
山mountainsan1san1kje6
红redfuŋ2fuŋ2si5
绿greenluʔ8luk8ka6pʰu2
黄yellowvɔŋ3vɔŋ2kʰun2
白whitepʰaʔ8pʰak8kjɔ1
黑blackvu1u1kjaŋ1
晚上nightam1pu6ʃi2man1sɔŋ5lɔ3kaŋ4tsʰi2
热hotŋiet8ŋiet8kʰaŋ1
冷coldlaŋ1laŋ1kjɔŋ5
满full—man1paŋ3
新newɕin1sin1tu6fun1
好goodhou3hau2ŋɔŋ5
圆roundʒen2jin2zin2
干dry—kɔn1kʰui1
名字name—miaŋ2mui2

Further reading

Notes

  1. ↑ kneecap 膝盖
  2. ↑ ash of grass/wood 草木灰

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 You Wenliang 游文良. 2002. Shezu yuyan 畲族语言. Fuzhou: Fujian People's Press 福建人民出版社. ISBN 7-211-03885-3
  2. ↑ You (2002:29)
  3. ↑ Luo, Chunfang; Duan, Lizhong; Li, Yanning; Xie, Qiqian; Wang, Lingxiang; Ru, Kai; Nazir, Shahid; Jawad, Muhammad; Zhao, Yifeng; Wang, Fenfen; Du, Zhengming; Peng, Dehua; Wen, Shao-Qing; Qiu, Pingming; Fan, Haoliang (2021). "Insights From Y-STRs: Forensic Characteristics, Genetic Affinities, and Linguistic Classifications of Guangdong Hakka and She Groups". Frontiers in Genetics. 12 676917. doi:10.3389/fgene.2021.676917. ISSN 1664-8021. PMC 8181459. PMID 34108995. She people speak the She language with different dialects such as Shanke, Dongjia, and Huonie. She language is a branch of Sino-Tibetan language families and is the primary language for the She group.
  4. 1 2 Tsai, Yaching; Deng, Xiaoling (2009). "Languages of the She Minority: A Review of the Literature". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 37 (2): 376. ISSN 0091-3723. JSTOR 23753782 – via JSTOR. The Han people call the language spoken by the She Shekehua 畲客话 or Sheminhua 畲民话 ('speech of the She guests' or 'speech of the She people'), but the She people call their own language Shankehua 山客话, or Shanhahua 山哈话 'speech of the mountain guests'.
  5. 1 2 林清书 (2013). "山羊隔畲族"山客话"与客家话的历史关系". 广西民族师范学院学报. 30 (1): 88. ISSN 1674-8891. 通过研究各地的"山客话"材料，笔者发现，在各地"山客话"中，反而是壮侗语的词语比较多，苗瑶语的词语极少。这种情况，跟闽南话、客家话中保存的壮侗语、苗瑶语的情况是基本一致的。 [Through examining materials on the "Shanke dialect'" from various regions, the author has found that among the "Shanke dialect" variants, words from the Kra–Dai languages are relatively numerous, while words from the Hmong–Mien languages are extremely few. This situation is largely consistent with the presence of Kra–Dai and Hmong–Mien linguistic elements preserved in Southern Min and Hakka dialects.]
  6. ↑ 林清书 (2008). "山羊隔畲族村的语言传承和语言使用现状". 龙岩学院学报. 26 (2): 90. ISSN 1673-4629. 由于在漳平生活了五百年以上的时间, "山客话"不知不觉地受到了漳平话的影响, 在词汇方面接收了许多漳平话和普通话的词语, 这是社会生活发展的必然结果。对"山客话"的语言使用的现状进行全面细致的描写和介绍，揭示"山客话"跟客家人和客家话的关系，揭示"山客话"中所包含的畲族历史与文化的各种信息, 以及"山客话"的未来展的态势等等, 都还有待于进一步努力。 [Having lived in Zhangping for over five hundred years, "Shanke dialect" has imperceptibly come under the influence of the Zhangping dialect, adopting many words from both Zhangping dialect and Standard Chinese in its vocabulary. This is an inevitable outcome of social development. A comprehensive and detailed description and introduction of the current language use of "Shanke dialect", revealing its relationship with the Hakka people and the Hakka dialect, uncovering the various information about She ethnic history and culture embedded in "Shanke dialect", as well as examining the future development trends of "Shanke dialect", all still require further effort.]
  7. ↑ 罗美珍 [in Chinese] (2013). "关于畲族所说语言的定性和命名问题的思考". 龙岩学院学报. 31 (1): 2. ISSN 1673-4629. 但是自称为"山客"和"畲"的畲族所说的语言，从现今发表的论著来看，其语言的主体结构（包括语音结构和演变特征、常用词、基本词、特征词以及语法特点）大多和客家话接近。有别于客家话或其他汉语方言的特点并不多见。 如果将这些语言称为"某地畲话"，就容易让人误解为是一种独立于汉语方言的体系。林清书教授把它称为"某地畲族山客话"我觉得比较合适。论证其性质和归属则向科学性更进了一步。 [However, according to the current published literature, the language spoken by the She ethnic group who call themselves "Shanke" and "She" has a core structure (including phonological structure and evolutionary features, commonly used words, basic vocabulary, characteristic words, and grammatical features), that largely resembles the Hakka dialect. Features that distinguish it from Hakka or other Chinese dialects are relatively uncommon. If this language is referred to as "She dialect of a certain place", it could easily lead to the misunderstanding that it constitutes an independent system separate from Chinese dialects. I believe Professor Lin Qingshu's suggestion to call it "Shanke dialect of the She people in a certain place" is more appropriate. Furthermore, discussing its nature and classification represents a step forward in terms of scientific rigor.]
  8. 1 2 "畲语概述". 中国民族文化资源库. Archived from the original on 17 June 2026. 畲语，是指畲族所使用的语言。汉族人一般称之为"畲民话"、"畲话"或"畲客话"；在畲族内部则称之为"山哈话"（意为"山客话"）。 [The She language refers to the language used by the She ethnic group. Han Chinese generally call it "Shemin dialect", "She dialect", or "Sheke dialect"; within the She ethnic group itself, it is called "Shanha dialect" (meaning "Shanke dialect").]
  9. ↑ 蔡驎 (2016). 流动的客家：客家的族群认同和民族认同. 上海人民出版社. p. 174. ISBN 978-7-20-814181-0. 笔者曾请教过畲族问题专家施联朱先生，他解释说："'SAN—HAK'"的'SAN'意为'山'，'HAK'意为'客'，写成汉字即为'山客'，这准确地反映了'SAN—HAK'的涵义。而取汉字'山哈'，则在发音上更接近'SAN—HAK'。" [The author once consulted Mr. Shi Lianzhu, an expert on She ethnic issues, who explained: "The 'SAN' in 'SAN—HAK' means 'mountain,' and 'HAK' means 'guest.' Written in Chinese characters, it becomes '山客' ('Shanke'), which accurately reflects the meaning of 'SAN—HAK.' As for the Chinese characters '山哈' ('Shanha'), they are closer in pronunciation to 'SAN—HAK.'"]
  10. 1 2 Wu Chong-chieh 吳中杰. 2014. Northern and Southern Vernaculars of She (San-hak): On Shuangguishan, Youxi County, Fujian Province / 畲話的南北分片問題: 以閩中尤溪雙貴山為例的探討. In 客家研究第七卷第二期, 2014 年12 月39-62 頁.
  11. ↑ 罗美珍 [in Chinese] (2013). "关于畲族所说语言的定性和命名问题的思考". 龙岩学院学报. 31 (1): 1, 2. ISSN 1673-4629. 最近见到林清书教授的《山羊隔畲族"山客话"与客家话的历史关系》一文，以及刘纶鑫教授的《贵溪樟坪畲话研究 》一 书 ，引发我对畲族所说语言的归属和命名问题的思考。（第1页）；但是自称为"山客"和"畲"的畲族所说的语言，从现今发表的论著来看，其语言的主体结构（包括语音结构和演变特征、常用词、基本词、特征词以及语法特点）大多和客家话接近。有别于客家话或其他汉语方言的特点并不多见。 如果将这些语言称为"某地畲话"，就容易让人误解为是一种独立于汉语方言的体系。林清书教授把它称为"某地畲族山客话"我觉得比较合适。论证其性质和归属则向科学性更进了一步。（第2页） [Recently, I came across Professor Lin Qingshu's article "The Historical Relationship between the 'Shanke dialect' of the She People in Shanyangge and the Hakka Dialect", as well as Professor Liu Lunxin's book "A Study of the She dialect in Zhangping, Guixi", which prompted me to reflect on the classification and naming of the language spoken by the She ethnic group. (p. 1); However, according to the current published literature, the language spoken by the She ethnic group who call themselves "Shanke" and "She" has a core structure (including phonological structure and evolutionary features, commonly used words, basic vocabulary, characteristic words, and grammatical features), that largely resembles the Hakka dialect. Features that distinguish it from Hakka or other Chinese dialects are relatively uncommon. If this language is referred to as "She dialect of a certain place", it could easily lead to the misunderstanding that it constitutes an independent system separate from Chinese dialects. I believe Professor Lin Qingshu's suggestion to call it "Shanke dialect of the She people in a certain place" is more appropriate. Furthermore, discussing its nature and classification represents a step forward in terms of scientific rigor. (p. 2)]
  12. ↑ "畲族概况". National Ethnic Affairs Commission. Archived from the original on 18 June 2026. 畲族有自己的语言，属汉藏语系。畲语和汉语的客家方言很接近，但在广东的海丰、增城、惠阳、博罗等极少数畲族使用接近瑶族"布努"语（属苗语支）。 [The She ethnic group has its own language, which belongs to the Sino-Tibetan languages. The She language is very close to the Hakka dialects of Chinese. However, in Haifeng, Zengcheng, Huiyang, and Boluo of Guangdong, a very small number of the She people use a language closely related to the 'Bunu' language of the Yao people (belonging to the Hmongic languages).]
  13. ↑ "维吾尔族概况". National Ethnic Affairs Commission. Archived from the original on 18 June 2026. 现代维吾尔语是维吾尔民族的共同语言，属阿尔泰语系突厥语族。 [The modern Uyghur language is the common language of the Uyghur ethnic group, and belongs to the Turkic branch of the Altaic languages.]
  14. ↑ "藏族概况". National Ethnic Affairs Commission. Archived from the original on 15 February 2026. 藏语属汉藏语系藏缅语族藏语支。 [The Tibetan language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages, specifically the Bodish subbranch.]
  15. ↑ 罗美珍 [in Chinese]. "关于畲族所说语言的定性和命名问题的思考". 龙岩学院学报. 31 (1): 1–3. ISSN 1673-4629.
  16. ↑ 賴維凱 (2015). "客畲基本詞源自南方例證─兼論「客」、「畲」族稱的來源" (PDF). 客家研究. 8 (2): 48. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2026. 這種情況跟畲族十分類似，畲族本來自稱「山哈」、「山達」或「山客」，而「畲」則是他稱，這種他稱的解釋在學界有兩種說法：其一、根據此一民族耕作的特性—「刀耕火種」所取的，然而有學者不以為然，認為全中國甚至世界上住在山上的民族幾乎都是用此種方式耕作的，為何只有他們被稱為「畲」，於是乎，就有了另一番解釋：其二、「畲」為「山哈」連讀（或急讀）所形成的音，前面已略有論述。 [This situation is very similar to that of the She ethnic group. The She people originally called themselves "Shanha", "Shanda," or "Shanke", while "She" is an exonym. There are two scholarly explanations for this exonym: First, it is derived from the agricultural practice of this ethnic group—"slash-and-burn" cultivation. However, some scholars disagree with this view, arguing that almost all ethnic groups living in mountainous areas across China and even the world use this method of farming, so there is no reason that only they are called "She". This leads to the second explanation: "She" is a phonological fusion formed by the rapid pronunciation (or contracted reading) of "Shanha", as briefly discussed earlier.]
  17. ↑ 陈琳 (20 September 2025). "福建"畲"字地名：语言文化与民族融合的印记". Fujian Daily. Archived from the original on 19 June 2026. "畲"在古代是对畲族人民的背称，畲族人自称"山客"。 [In ancient times, "She" was an exonym for the She ethnic group, while the She people called themselves "Shanke".]
  18. ↑ 廖钰娴 (12 February 2025). 柯鸿海; 徐子茗 (eds.). "畲族"村晚"里的中国年". Nanfang Daily. Archived from the original on 19 June 2026. 值得庆幸的是，这里的畲族人依然记住了一些重要的常识。比如，"山哈"是畲族的自称，音同"山客"，本意为"山里的客人"。 [Fortunately, the She people here still remember some important basic knowledge. For example, "Shanha" is the self-designation of the She ethnic group. It is pronounced the same as 'Shanke', and originally means "guests in the mountains".]
  19. ↑ 陳天權 (6 April 2016). "畲族文化" (PDF). Ta Kung Pao. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2026. 畲是一少數民族，屬瑤（傜）族的分支，自稱 「山客」，意指住在山中的人。 [The She are an ethnic minority group, belonging to a branch of the Yao ethnic group. They call themselves "Shanke", which means "people who live in the mountains".]
  20. ↑ 林清书 (2008). "山羊隔畲族村的语言传承和语言使用现状". 龙岩学院学报. 26 (2): 89. ISSN 1673-4629.
  21. ↑ 罗美珍 [in Chinese] (1980). "畲族所说的客家话". 中央民族学院学报. 1980 (1): 76. ISSN 1005-8575. 畲族使用两种语言：广东惠阳、海丰、增城、博罗一带的畲族使用的是畲语，属苗瑶语族苗语支，约有一千多人，占整个畲族人口的千分之四左右；其他地区占总人口百分之九十九以上的畲族，使用汉语的客家方言。 [The She ethnic group uses two languages: the She people in the areas of Huiyang, Haifeng, Zengcheng, and Boluo in Guangdong use the She language, which belongs to the Hmongic branch of the Hmongic-Mien languages. This group numbers about 1,000 people, accounting for roughly 0.4% of the total She population. The She people in other regions, who make up over 99% of the total She population, use Hakka dialects of Chinese.]
  22. ↑ 谢重光 [in Chinese] (2002). 畲族与客家福佬关系史略. 福建人民出版社. p. 308. ISBN 978-7-21-103886-2. 现在的畲民，除了分布在广东罗浮山区的少数人外，基本上操客家方言，或者说操与客家方言十分相近的畲族语言。 [Nowadays, with the exception of a small number of She people living in the Luofu Mountain area of Guangdong, the vast majority of the She population speak Hakka dialects, or alternatively, a language of the She that is very close to Hakka dialects.]
  23. ↑ 罗美珍 [in Chinese] (2013). "关于畲族所说语言的定性和命名问题的思考". 龙岩学院学报. 31 (1): 1, 2. ISSN 1673-4629. 畲族人（山客）出于对本民族的热爱，难以接受他们所说的话属于客家话。 我们非常理解他们的感情。 但是语言定性和划分归属属于语言科学范畴，作为语言科学工作者只能根据语言事实说话。（第1页）；一 些自称为"山客"或"畲"的畲族，出于对本民族热爱的情感， 难以接受他们所说的话属于客家话。他们根据听不懂当地或临近的汉语方言而认为畲族有自己独立的语言。我们能够理解他们的这种感情。 但是语言定性和划分归属毕竟属于语言科学范畴，作为语言科学工作者只能根据语言事实说话。（第2页） [The She people (Shanke), out of their love for their own ethnic group, find it difficult to accept that the language they speak belongs to the Hakka dialect. We fully understand their sentiments. However, the qualitative determination and classification of a language fall within the domain of linguistic science. As language science researchers, we can only speak based on linguistic facts. (p. 1); Some She people who call themselves "Shanke" or "She", out of their deep affection for their ethnic group, find it hard to accept that the language they speak belongs to the Hakka dialect. They believe that the She have their own independent language, based on the fact that they cannot understand the local or neighbouring Chinese dialects. We can understand such feelings. However, the qualitative determination and classification of a language ultimately belong to the domain of linguistic science. As language science researchers, we can only speak based on linguistic facts. (p. 2)]
  24. ↑ Nakanishi 2010.
  25. ↑ 赵则玲. 2004. 试论畲话的归属. 《语言科学》2004年第5期87-94,共8页.
  26. ↑ 林清书. 2008. 山羊隔畲族村的语言传承和语言使用现状. 《龙岩学院学报》 2008年第2期87-91,共5页.
  27. 1 2 Lin Jinlu, etc. Longyan Prefecture Geographical Gazetteer Editorial Committee 龙岩地区地方志编纂委员会编; 总编林金禄. 1992. Longyan Prefecture Geographical Gazetteer 福建省龙岩地区志. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press 上海人民出版社.
  28. ↑ 大岛广美. 2011. 丰顺县凤坪村畲话的上声调嘎裂声. 《文化遗产》 中文社会科学引文索引 2011年第3期共6页.
  29. ↑ You Wenliang 游文良; Lei Nan 雷楠; Lan Ruitang 蓝瑞汤. 2005. Fenghuangshan Sheyu 凤凰山畲语. Jilin People's Press 吉林人民出版社.
  30. ↑ Hu Songbai 胡松柏; Hu Derong 胡德荣. 2013. Yanshan Taiyuan Shehua yanjiu 铅山太源畲话研究. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
  31. ↑ Liu Lunxin 刘纶鑫. 2008. Guixi Zhangping Shehua yanjiu 贵溪樟坪畲话研究. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社.
  32. ↑ Wu Chong-chieh 吳中杰. 2004. Languages of She Minority / Shezu yuyan yanjiu 畬族語言研究. Ph.D. dissertation. Hsinchu, Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University 國立清華大學語言研究所.
  33. ↑ 钱虹. 2015. 语言接触下的畲话语音变迁——以安徽宁国云梯畲话为例. 《广西民族大学学报: 哲学社会科学版》2015年第1期163-167,共5页.
  34. ↑ Yóu, Wénliáng 游文良 (2002). Shēzú yǔyán 畬族語言 [The language of the She minority]. Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing House.
  35. 1 2 Zhào, Zélíng 趙則玲 (2004). Zhèjiāng Shēzú yánjiù 浙江畬族研究 [A study of the She dialects of Zhejiang]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House.
  36. ↑ Hú, Sōngbó 胡松柏 (2009). Gàn dōngběi fāngyán dìaochá yánjiù 贑東北方言調查研究 [A survey study of the dialects of Northeast Jiangxi]. Nanchang: Jiangxi People's Publishing House.
  37. ↑ Gan Chunyan 甘春妍. 2011. Boluo Sheyu yanjiu 博罗畲语研究. Tianjin: Nankai University Press 南开大学出版社. ISBN 978-7-310-03777-3

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