Voiced alveolar fricative

Voiced alveolar tapped fricative
Voiced alveolar tapped fricative
ɾ̞

Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative
Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative
ð̠
ɹ̝

Voiced alveolar fricative
Voiced alveolar fricative
z
IPA number	133
Audio sample
	source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	z
Unicode (hex)	U+007A
X-SAMPA	z
Braille
Image

Voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described.

The symbol for an alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or postalveolar sibilants in narrow transcription unless modified by a diacritic (⟨z̪⟩ and ⟨z̠⟩ respectively).^{[citation needed]}
The IPA symbol for an alveolar non-sibilant fricative is derived by means of diacritics; it can be ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝⟩.

Voiced coronal fricatives
	Inter- dental	Dental	Denti- alveolar	Alveolar	Post-alveolar
	Inter- dental	Dental	Denti- alveolar	Alveolar	Retracted	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Alveolo- palatal
Sibilant	z̪̟	z̪	z̟	z͇	z̠	ʐ	ʒ	ʑ
Non-sibilant	ð̟	ð	ð̠	ð͇		ɻ̝	ɹ̠˔

Voiced alveolar sibilant

A voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages, but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to its voiceless variant. Only about 28% of the world's languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of [z] are languages of Europe, Africa, or Western Asia.^{[citation needed]}

Features

Its manner of articulation is sibilant (a subclass of fricatives and affricates), which means it is generally produced with a higher-frequency turbulence. Sibilants may be articulated with various tongue shapes and degrees of palatalization, depending on their place of articulation.
There are at least three specific variants of [z]:
- Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [z] is very strong.
- Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
- Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to [ʒ] or laminal [ʐ].
Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Armenian	Eastern	զարդ / zart	[z̪ɑɾt̪ʰ]^ⓘ	'decoration'
Azerbaijani		zoğ	[z̪ɔʁ]	'sprout'
Belarusian		база / baza	[ˈbäz̪ä]	'base'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Bulgarian		езеро / ezero	[ˈɛz̪ɛro]	'lake'	Contrasts with palatalized form.
English	Multicultural London	zoo	[z̪ʏˑy̯]	'zoo'	See English phonology
French		zèbre	[z̪ɛbʁ]^ⓘ	'zebra'	See French phonology
Hungarian		zálog	[ˈz̪äːl̪oɡ]	'pledge'	See Hungarian phonology
Kashubian		zajc	[ˈzajt͡s]	'hare'
Kazakh		заң / zań	[z̪ɑŋ]	'law'
Kyrgyz		заң / zań	[z̪ɑŋ]	'law'
Latvian		zars	[z̪ärs̪]	'branch'	See Latvian phonology
Macedonian		зошто / zošto	[ˈz̪ɔʃt̪ɔ]	'why'	See Macedonian phonology
Mirandese		daprendizaige	[d̪əpɾẽd̪iˈz̪ajʒ(ɯ̽)]	'learning'	Contrasts seven sibilants altogether, preserving medieval Ibero-Romance contrasts.
Polish		zero	[ˈz̪ɛrɔ]^ⓘ	'zero'	See Polish phonology
Portuguese	Most speakers	Estados Unidos	[isˈt̪ad̪uz̪‿ʉˈnid͡zᶶ(ˢ)]	'United States'	See Portuguese phonology
Romanian		zar	[z̪är]	'dice'	See Romanian phonology
Russian		заезжать / zaězžať	[z̪əɪˈʑʑætʲ]^ⓘ	'to pick up'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology
Serbo-Croatian		зајам / zajam	[z̪ǎːjäm]	'loan'	See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovak		zima	[ˈz̪imä]	'winter'
Slovene		zima	[ˈz̪ìːmá]	'winter'
Turkish		göz	[ɟø̞̈z̪]	'eye'	See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian		зуб / zub	[z̪ub]	'tooth'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian		koza	[ˈkɔz̪ä]	'goat'
Uzbek		zafar	[z̪äˈfäɾ]	'victory'
Vietnamese	Hanoi	da	[z̪äː]	'skin'	See Vietnamese phonology

Alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Adyghe		зы / zy	[ˈzə]^ⓘ	'one'
Albanian		zjarr	[zjar]	'fire'
Arabic	Standard	زائِر / zāʾir	[ˈzaːʔir]	'visitor'	See Arabic phonology
Assamese		জলকীয়া / jolokīẏā	[zɔlɔkija]	'chili'
Assyrian		ܙܢ̱ܓܐ / zìga	[ziɡa]	'bell'
Bengali		জ়োর / zōɹ	[zoɹ]	'obligatory'	Only occurs in loanwords. See Bengali phonology
Breton		iliz	[iliz]	'church'
Chechen		зурма / zurma	[zuɾma]	'music'
Czech		zima	[ˈzɪma]	'winter'	See Czech phonology
Emilian	Bolognese	raṡån	[raːz̺ʌŋ]	'reason'	Palatalized apical; may be [ʐ] or [ʒ] instead.
English		zoo	[zuː]^ⓘ	'zoo'	Absent from some Scottish and Asian dialects. See English phonology
Esperanto		kuzo	[ˈkuzo]	'cousin'	See Esperanto phonology
Georgian		ზარი / zari	[ˈzɑɾi]	'bell'
Greek	Athens dialect	ζάλη / záli	[ˈz̻ali]	'dizziness'	See Modern Greek phonology
Hebrew		זאב / ze'eb	[zeˈʔev]	'wolf'	See Modern Hebrew phonology
Hindustani	Hindi	ज़मीन / zamīn	[zəmiːn]	'land'	May be replaced in Hindi by [dʒ]. See Hindustani phonology
Hindustani	Urdu	زمین / zamīn	[zəmiːn]	'land'	May be replaced in Hindi by [dʒ]. See Hindustani phonology
Irish		zú	[zˠuː]	'zoo'	Only used in loanwords. (loan consonant) See Irish phonology
Japanese		全部 / zenbu	[zembɯ]	'everything'	Might be replaced with [dz]. See Japanese phonology
Kabardian		зы zə	[ˈzə]^ⓘ	'one'
Kalaw Lagaw Ya		zilamiz	[zilʌmiz]	'go'
Kashmiri		ज़ानुन / زانُن / zānun	[zaːnun]	'to know'
Khmer		បែលហ្ស៊ិក / bêlhsĭk	[ɓaelzɨk]	noun: 'Belgium', 'Belgian(s)' adjective: 'Belgian'	See Khmer phonology
Konda		sunz	[sunz]	'to sleep'
Malay		beza	[bezə]	'difference'
Maltese		żelu	[zelu]	'zeal'
Marathi		जर / jar	[zər]	'if'	See Marathi phonology.
Nepali		हजार / hajār	[ɦʌzäɾ]	'thousand'	Coda and intervocalic allophone of /d͡z/ and /d͡zʱ/.
		कागज / kāgaj	[käɣʌz]	'paper'
		बुझाउनु / bujhāunu	[buzäu̯nu]	'to explain'
		माझ / mājh	[mäz]	'middle'
Occitan	Limousin	jòune	[ˈzɒwne]	'young'	See Occitan phonology
Persian		روز	[ɾuːz]	'day'
Portuguese		casa	[ˈkazɐ]	'house'	See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi	Gurmukhi	ਹਜ਼ਾਰ / hazār	[həˈzaːr]	'thousand'	May be replaced by [dʒ] in Gurmukhi (Indian) varieties.
Punjabi	Shahmukhi	ہزار / hazār	[həˈzaːr]	'thousand'	May be replaced by [dʒ] in Gurmukhi (Indian) varieties.
Spanish	Andalusian	comunismo	[ko̞muˈnizmo̞]	'communism'	Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants, when it is not debuccalized to [h ~ ɦ]. Present in dialects which realize /s/ as a non-retracted alveolar fricative. Before /d/ it is dental [z̪].
	Latin American
	Filipino
Swahili		lazima	[lɑzimɑ]	'must'
Tamil	Jaffna Tamil	கடுதாசி	[kɐɖuðaːzi]	'letter'	Was only reported for 1 speaker in the sample but he pronounced it regularly.
West Frisian		sizze	[ˈsɪzə]	'to say'	It never occurs in word-initial positions. See West Frisian phonology
Yi		ꍂ / ssy	[zɹ̩˧]	'generation'
Yiddish		זון / zien	[zin]	'son'
Zapotec	Tilquiapan	guanaz	[ɡʷanaz]	'went to grab'

Retracted alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Catalan	Most dialects	zel	[ˈz̺ɛɫ]^ⓘ	'zeal'	Apical. See Catalan phonology}
Catalan	Some dialects	utilitzar	[u̞t̪i̞ɫi̞ˈz̺ɑ(ɾ)]	'to use'	Apical. Deaffrication found in some dialects (including Standard Valencian). See Catalan phonology
Galician		mesmo	[ˈme̞z̺mo̞]	'same'	Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̪].
Greek		μάζα / máza	[ˈmɐz̠ɐ]^ⓘ	'mass'	See Modern Greek phonology
Italian	Central Italy	caso	[ˈkäːz̠o]	'case'	Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro, most of Umbria (save Perugia and the extreme south) and Marche south of the Potenza.
	Northern Italy				Apical. Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line. See Italian phonology
	Sicily				Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.
Low German		^{[example needed]}
Maldivian		zaraafaa	[z̺aˈraːfaː]	'giraffe'
Mirandese		eisistir	[e̞jz̺is̺ˈtiɾ]	'to exist'	Apical. Mirandese and neighboring Portuguese dialects were the only surviving oral tradition to preserve all seven mediaeval Ibero-Romance sibilants: ⟨ch⟩ /tʃ/, ⟨x⟩ /ʃ/, ⟨g⟩/⟨j⟩ /ʒ/, ⟨c⟩/⟨ç⟩ /s̪/, ⟨z⟩ /z̪/, ⟨s⟩/-⟨ss⟩- /s̺/, -⟨s⟩- /z̺/
Occitan	Gascon	casèrna	[kaz̺ɛrno]	'barracks'	See Occitan phonology
Occitan	Languedocien	véser	[bez̺e]	'to see'	See Occitan phonology
Piedmontese		amis	[aˈmiz̠]	'friend'	Apical. See Piemontese phonology
Portuguese	Coastal Northern European	^{[example needed]}			Merges with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology
Portuguese	Inland Northern European	^{[example needed]}			Apical. Contrasts with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology
Spanish	Andean	mismo	[ˈmiz̺mo̞]^ⓘ	'same'	Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̪]. See Spanish phonology
	Castilian
	Paisa Region

Variable

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
German	Standard	sauber	[ˈzäʊ̯bɐ]	'clean'	Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical. See Standard German phonology
Italian	Standard	caso	[ˈkäːzo]	'case'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. See Italian phonology
Italian	Ticino	caso	[ˈkäːzo]	'case'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. Both variants may be labiodentalized. See Italian phonology
Dutch	Belgian Standard	zeep	[zeːpʰ]^ⓘ	'soap'	Laminal. See Dutch phonology
	Northern Standard	zeep	[zeɪ̯pʰ]^ⓘ	'soap'	Laminal; may have only mid-to-low pitched friction. If not the main allophone, it is often retracted when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/. See Dutch phonology
	Northern Standard	zat	[ˈz̠ɑtʰ]^ⓘ	'full', 'fed (up)'

Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative

A voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a slit fricative) is a consonantal sound in some spoken languages. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for non-sibilant alveolar fricatives, this sound can be transcribed by use of diacritics, such as ⟨ð̠⟩ (a retracted [ð]) or ⟨ɹ̝⟩ (a raised [ɹ], also often part of the affricate [dɹ̝]). Additional symbols include ⟨ð͇⟩ (with the alveolar diacritic, in extIPA) and ⟨d̞⟩ (a lowered [d]).

Features

Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Czech		čtyři	[ˈt͡ʃtɪɹ̝ɪ]^ⓘ	'four'	May be a fricative trill or a tapped fricative (see below) instead. It contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. See Czech phonology
Dahalo		[káð̠i]		'work'	Apical; only weakly fricated. It is a common intervocalic allophone of /d̠/, and may dental [ð] or a plosive [d] instead.
Dutch		voor	[vöːɹ̝]^ⓘ	'for'	One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology
Emilian	Bolognese	chèṡ	[ˈkɛːð̠]	'case'	Laminal
English	Scouse	maid	[meɪð̠]	'maid'	Allophone of /d/. See English phonology
English	South African	round	[ɹ̝æʊ̯nd]	'round'	Apical, present in some urban dialects. See South African English phonology
Extreme Southern Italian	Sicilian	raro	[ɹ̝aːɾo]	'rare'	Corresponds to /rr/ in standard Italian, as well as word-initial /r/, and may be geminated. Described as a 'non-sulcalized sonorant', articulated without contact; may be closer to an approximant, depending on the speaker.
	Calabro
	Salentino
Icelandic		góða	[ˈko̞ˑu̯ˑð̠ä]^ⓘ	'good (inflexion)'	Usually apical, may be closer to an approximant; variably removed from the front teeth, up to (nearly) spot on [ð̞]. See Icelandic phonology
Manx		mooar	[muːɹ̝]	'big'	Pre-consonantal and word-final realization of /r/, in free variation with other allophones.
Scottish Gaelic	Southern Hebridean	èirigh	[ˈeːɹ̝ʲi]	'to rise'	Apical and strongly palatalized. Corresponds to /ɾʲ/ in Skye and some mainland dialects, /ð/ in Lewis, [ʒ] in southern Barra and [j] in Tiree.
Scottish Gaelic	Wester Ross	coire	[ˈkʰɔɹ̝ʲə]	'kettle'	Apical and strongly palatalized. Allophone of /ɾʲ/ after non-front vowels.
Swedish	Central Standard	vandra	[vän̪ːd̪ɹ̝ä]^ⓘ	'wander'	Allophone of /r/ around the Stockholm area. See Swedish phonology

Voiced alveolar tapped fricative

A few languages also have a voiced alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. It can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show that full occlusion does not occur, such as ⟨ɾ̞⟩ (though this may also symbolize an "approximant tap"). Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Aragonese	Chistabino	aire	[ˈäi̯ɾ̞e̞]	'air'	Common realization of /ɾ/.
Tacana		^{[example needed]}
Turkish		rüya	[ɾ̞yˈjɑː]^ⓘ	'dream'	Word-initial allophone of /ɾ/. See Turkish phonology

Notes

1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977:149), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:154)
↑ Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
↑ Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 136, 139–142.
↑ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
↑ Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
↑ "english speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.
↑ Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
↑ Szende (1999), p. 104.
↑ Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
↑ Kara (2002), p. 10.
↑ Kara (2003), p. 11.
↑ Nau (1998), p. 6.
↑ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
↑ Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
↑ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}
↑ Chew (2003), p. 67.
↑ Kordić (2006), p. 5.
↑ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
↑ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980:21)
↑ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
↑ Buk, Solomija; Mačutek, Ján; Rovenchak, Andrij (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16 (16): 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198. Bibcode:2008arXiv0802.4198B. (PDF ram-verlag.eu)
↑ Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
↑ Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
↑ Thompson (1987), pp. 5 and 7.
↑ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
↑ Palková (1994), p. 228.
↑ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
↑ Adams (1975), p. 283.
↑ Okada (1999), p. 117.
↑ Emeneau (1970).
↑ Krishnamurti (2003), p. 70.
↑ Pokharel, Madhav Prasad (1989), Experimental analysis of Nepali sound system (PhD), University of Pune, India
↑ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
↑ Zvelebil, Kamil (1965). Some features of Ceylon Tamil. Indo-Iranian Journal. Vol. 9. JSTOR. pp. 113–138. JSTOR 24650188.
↑ Sipma (1913), p. 16.
↑ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
↑ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
↑ Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
↑ Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.
↑ Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71-72.
1 2 3 Canepari (1992), p. 72.
↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71.
↑ Adams (1975), p. 285.
↑ Adams (1975), p. 289.
1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.
1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 68.
↑ Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
↑ Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228–230 and 233.
↑ Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012), p. 226.
↑ Maddieson et al. (1993:34)
↑ Maddieson et al. (1993:28, 34)
↑ Collins & Mees (2003:199). Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
↑ Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.
1 2 Ogden (2009), p. 92.
1 2 Canepari (2023:80, 102)
1 2 Pétursson (1971:213), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:145)
1 2 Grønnum (2005:139)
↑ Árnason (2011:106, 108): "[It is] doubtful whether the voiced fricatives are to be classified as such, rather than as approximants." "The weakness of the articulation of the voiced sounds makes them at times more like approximants, and they are very easily deleted intervocalically in natural speech[.]"
↑ Rögnvaldsson (2017:36)
↑ Broderick (1986), p. 17.
↑ Borgstrøm (1940), p. 165.
↑ Borgstrøm (1941), p. 99.
↑ Engstrand (1999), pp. 141.
↑ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
↑ Martínez-Celdrán, Romera Barrios & Elvira-García (2026), pp. 456–457.
↑ Laver (1994), p. 263.
1 2 Mott (2007), pp. 104, 112.
↑ "UPSID r[F". Retrieved 24 January 2016.
1 2 Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.

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External links

[PNFK-1] 1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977:149), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:154)

[FOOTNOTEKozintseva19957-2] Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEAxundov1983115,_136,_139–142-3] Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 136, 139–142.

[FOOTNOTEPadluzhny198947-4] Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.

[FOOTNOTEKlagstad195846-5] Klagstad (1958), p. 46.

[6] "english speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975288-7] 1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.

[FOOTNOTEFougeronSmith199979-8] Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.

[FOOTNOTESzende1999104-9] Szende (1999), p. 104.

[10] Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.

[FOOTNOTEKara200210-11] Kara (2002), p. 10.

[FOOTNOTEKara200311-12] Kara (2003), p. 11.

[FOOTNOTENau19986-13] Nau (1998), p. 6.

[FOOTNOTELunt19521-14] Lunt (1952), p. 1.

[FOOTNOTERocławski1976149-15] Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.

[16] Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}

[FOOTNOTEChew200367-17] Chew (2003), p. 67.

[FOOTNOTEKordić20065-18] Kordić (2006), p. 5.

[FOOTNOTELandauLončarićHorgaŠkarić199967-19] Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.

[20] Pretnar & Tokarz (1980:21)

[FOOTNOTEZimmerOrgun1999154-21] Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.

[22] Buk, Solomija; Mačutek, Ján; Rovenchak, Andrij (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16 (16): 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198. Bibcode:2008arXiv0802.4198B. (PDF ram-verlag.eu)

[FOOTNOTEŠewc-Schuster198422,_38,_39-23] Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.

[FOOTNOTESjoberg196311-24] Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEThompson19875_and_7-25] Thompson (1987), pp. 5 and 7.

[FOOTNOTEThelwall199037-26] Thelwall (1990), p. 37.

[FOOTNOTEPalková1994228-27] Palková (1994), p. 228.

[FOOTNOTEShostedChikovani2006255-28] Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975283-29] Adams (1975), p. 283.

[FOOTNOTEOkada1999117-30] Okada (1999), p. 117.

[FOOTNOTEEmeneau1970-31] Emeneau (1970).

[FOOTNOTEKrishnamurti200370-32] Krishnamurti (2003), p. 70.

[pokharel-33] Pokharel, Madhav Prasad (1989), Experimental analysis of Nepali sound system (PhD), University of Pune, India

[FOOTNOTECruz-Ferreira199591-34] Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.

[35] Zvelebil, Kamil (1965). Some features of Ceylon Tamil. Indo-Iranian Journal. Vol. 9. JSTOR. pp. 113–138. JSTOR 24650188.

[FOOTNOTESipma191316-36] Sipma (1913), p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEMerrill2008108-37] Merrill (2008), p. 108.

[FOOTNOTECarbonellLlisterri199254-38] Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.

[FOOTNOTETorreblanca1988347-39] Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.

[FOOTNOTEArvaniti200712-40] Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975286-41] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975285–286-42] Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199271-72-43] Canepari (1992), p. 71-72.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199272-44] 1 2 3 Canepari (1992), p. 72.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199271-45] Canepari (1992), p. 71.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975285-46] Adams (1975), p. 285.

[FOOTNOTEAdams1975289-47] Adams (1975), p. 289.

[FOOTNOTEMangold200550-48] 1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199268-49] 1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 68.

[FOOTNOTECanepari199268_and_72-50] Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.

[FOOTNOTECollinsMees2003190-51] 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.

[FOOTNOTECollinsMees2003145,_190-52] 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.

[FOOTNOTEGussenhoven199975-53] Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.

[FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996228–230_and_233-54] 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228–230 and 233.

[FOOTNOTEŠimáčkováPodlipskýChládková2012226-55] Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012), p. 226.

[56] Maddieson et al. (1993:34)

[57] Maddieson et al. (1993:28, 34)

[CM199-58] Collins & Mees (2003:199). Authors do not say where exactly it is used.

[FOOTNOTEWatson2007352–353-59] Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.

[FOOTNOTELadefogedMaddieson1996236-60] 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.

[FOOTNOTEOgden200992-61] 1 2 Ogden (2009), p. 92.

[canepari-62] 1 2 Canepari (2023:80, 102)

[Pétursson-63] 1 2 Pétursson (1971:213), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:145)

[Grønnum-64] 1 2 Grønnum (2005:139)

[65] Árnason (2011:106, 108): "[It is] doubtful whether the voiced fricatives are to be classified as such, rather than as approximants." "The weakness of the articulation of the voiced sounds makes them at times more like approximants, and they are very easily deleted intervocalically in natural speech[.]"

[RÖGNVALDDSON-66] Rögnvaldsson (2017:36)

[FOOTNOTEBroderick198617-67] Broderick (1986), p. 17.

[FOOTNOTEBorgstrøm1940165-68] Borgstrøm (1940), p. 165.

[FOOTNOTEBorgstrøm194199-69] Borgstrøm (1941), p. 99.

[FOOTNOTEEngstrand1999141-70] Engstrand (1999), pp. 141.

[FOOTNOTEEngstrand2004167-71] Engstrand (2004), p. 167.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez-CeldránRomera_BarriosElvira-García2026456–457-72] Martínez-Celdrán, Romera Barrios & Elvira-García (2026), pp. 456–457.

[FOOTNOTELaver1994263-73] Laver (1994), p. 263.

[FOOTNOTEMott2007104,_112-74] 1 2 Mott (2007), pp. 104, 112.

[tacana-75] "UPSID r[F". Retrieved 24 January 2016.

[FOOTNOTEYavuzBalcı201125-76] 1 2 Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.

Voiced alveolar fricative

Voiced alveolar sibilant

Features

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Alveolar

Retracted alveolar

Variable

Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative

Features

Occurrence

Voiced alveolar tapped fricative

See also

Notes

References

External links