Indonesia is home to over 700 living languages spoken across its extensive archipelago. This significant linguistic variety constitutes approximately 10% of the world’s total languages, positioning Indonesia as the second most linguistically diverse nation globally, following Papua New Guinea. The majority of these languages belong to the Austronesian language family, prevalent in the western and central regions of Indonesia, including languages such as Acehnese, Sundanese, and Buginese. In contrast, the eastern regions, particularly Papua and the Maluku Islands, are home to more than 150 Papuan languages, which are distinct from the Austronesian family and represent a unique linguistic heritage. The language most widely spoken as a native language is Javanese, primarily by the Javanese people in the central and eastern parts of Java Island, as well as across many other islands due to migration.
The Youth Pledge, a pledge made by Indonesian youths on October 28, 1928, defining the identity of the Indonesian nation. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a unifying language throughout the archipelago.
The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian (locally known as bahasa Indonesia), a standardised form of Malay, which serves as the lingua franca of the archipelago. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian. The vocabulary of Indonesian borrows heavily from regional languages of Indonesia, such as Javanese, Sundanese and Minangkabau, as well as from Dutch, Sanskrit, Portuguese, Arabic and more recently English. The Indonesian language is primarily used in commerce, administration, education and the media; thus, nearly every Indonesian speaks the language to varying degrees of proficiency. Most Indonesians speak other languages, such as Javanese, as their first language. This makes plurilingualism a norm in Indonesia.
Indigenous languages and regional lingua francas
The major ethno-linguistic groups within Indonesia
Indonesia recognizes only a single national language, and indigenous languages are recognized at the regional level, although policies may vary from one region to another. For example, in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, the Javanese language has the status of a regional official language in Yogyakarta under regional law, where it is used for cultural, educational, and communicative purposes, while Indonesian remains the sole national language of administration
Javanese is the most spoken indigenous language, with native speakers constituting 31.8% of the total population of Indonesia (as of 2010). Javanese speakers are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java, and there are also sizable numbers in most provinces. The next most widely spoken regional languages in the country are Sundanese, local Malay, Madurese, and Minangkabau. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.
There are hundreds of indigenous languages spoken in Indonesia. Most of them are locally used indigenous languages, a category of languages referring to those spoken at the local, regional level, spoken by a small number of people, ranging from a few to a few thousands of people. These include small languages such as Benggoi, Mombum, and Towei.[pageneeded] Other languages are spoken at the regional level to connect various ethnicities. For this reason, these languages are known as regional lingua francas (RLFs). According to Subhan Zein, there are at least 43 RLFs in Indonesia, categorized into two types: Malayic RLFs and Non-Malayic RLFs. The former refers to a group of regional lingua francas that are thought of as indigenised varieties of Malay or Indonesian. These include such languages as Ambonese Malay, Banjarese, Manado Malay, and Papuan Malay. The latter refers to regional lingua francas that are not associated with Malay or Indonesian, including Biak, Iban, and Onin.[pageneeded]
Foreign languages
As early as the seventh century AD, the natives of the archipelago began an intense period of trade with people from China, India and other countries. This was followed by a long period of colonization by the Dutch and Portuguese colonials. The outcome of these processes has been the development of a group of heritage languages spoken by Arab, Chinese, Eurasian and Dutch descendants, among others. Chinese linguistic varieties such as Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin are the most common heritage languages. Tamil is also spoken among majority of Indians in the country. A small number of heritage language speakers speak Arabic and Dutch.
The use of Dutch, Javanese and Malay in Java, Dutch East Indies
Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350years (parts of Indonesia were ruled by the Dutch East India Company and the whole of modern Indonesia was in the Dutch East Indies) the Dutch language has no official status in Indonesia. The small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession, as certain law codes are still available only in Dutch.
English
English has historically been categorized as the first foreign language in Indonesia. However, increasing exposure to English, the decreasing influence of native-speaker norms in the country and the prevalent use of English as a lingua franca in the broader context such as ASEAN means that the categorization has been put into question. Scholars such as Lowenberg argue that English is best seen as an additional language. Meanwhile, Zein argues that English in Indonesia is best categorized as a lingua franca, an argument parallel with Kirkpatrick's contention on the use of English as a lingua franca in the broader ASEAN context.
Other languages
Other languages, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Portuguese and Spanish, are non-native to Indonesia. These languages are included in the educational curriculum and may be categorized as either foreign or additional languages, depending on the instrumental function of the languages, length and types of exposure, as well as the wide-ranging motivations of the speakers or learners who use and or learn them.
There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009 (dropped from 742 languages in 2007), the second largest multilingual population in the world after Papua New Guinea. Indonesian Papua, which is adjacent to Papua New Guinea, has the most languages in Indonesia. Based on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale classification used by Ethnologue (formerly the Summer Institute of Linguistics), 63 languages are dying (shown in red on the bar chart, subdivided into Moribund and Nearly Extinct, or Dormant), which is defined as "The only fluent users (if any) are older than child-bearing age."
Language policy
Indonesia's national language policy is governed by various legal frameworks. Article 36C of the 1945 Constitution mandates that matters related to the national flag, language, emblem, and anthem must be regulated by law. This mandate led to the enactment of Law No. 24 of 2009 on the National Flag, Language, Emblem, and Anthem, which dedicates Chapter III (Articles 25–45) to the regulation of the Indonesian language.
In addition to regulating the national language, the government has implemented a Regional Language Revitalization Program (Revitalisasi Bahasa Daerah (RBD)), which aims to preserve and promote local languages by ensuring their transmission to younger generations. To support this initiative, the ministry has published Guidelines for Regional Language Revitalization (Pedoman Model Revitalisasi Bahasa Daerah), providing a structured approach for implementation across different regions.
Indonesia is home to 718 regional languages, many of which are classified as endangered or critically endangered. The revitalization efforts are part of a broader strategy to maintain linguistic diversity while reinforcing the role of Indonesian as the national language.
The population numbers given below are of native speakers, excepting the figure for Indonesian, which counts its total speakers. The total population of the country was 237.6 million in 2010.
Javanese language, spoken in Yogyakarta, Central Java and East Java. Speakers are also found in Lampung since Javanese migrants make up more than half of the province's population. Also found throughout Indonesia and by migrants in Suriname. Most populous Austronesian language by number of first language speakers.
West Papuan languages, an indigenous language family found only in eastern Indonesia (northern Maluku and western Papua). No discernible relationship with other language families. Distinct from surrounding Austronesian languages.
There are at least 2.5 million sign language users across the country, although official report only shows less than 50,000. Sign language users are often ridiculed and stigmatized.
One of the Yupa inscriptions from Kutai, East Kalimantan, written in Sanskrit using the Tamil Grantha script.
Indonesian languages are generally not rendered in native-invented systems, but in scripts devised by speakers of other languages, that is, Tamil, Arabic, and Latin. Malay, for example, has a long history as a written language and has been rendered in Brahmic, Arabic, and Latin scripts. Javanese has been written in the Pallava script of South India, as well as their derivative (known as Kawi and Javanese), in an Arabic alphabet called pegon that incorporates Javanese sounds, and in the Latin script.
Chinese characters have never been used to write Indonesian languages, although Indonesian place-names, personal names, and names of trade goods appear in reports and histories written for China's imperial courts.
Tree diagram of various writing systems that are used in Indonesia
List of writing systems
Latin – The national and official writing system of Indonesia. Indonesian, along with all of the country’s vernacular languages, adopts Latin script. It is used in every branch of government and widely across all aspects of life in Indonesia, including education, entertainment, media, and more. Latin script ensures uniformity in communication across Indonesia’s many ethnic groups and languages.
Traditional writing systems – Traditional writing systems or Nusantara scripts are used for cultural preservation. Nusantara scripts are taught in schools in some regions as a "Muatan Lokal" or local curriculum. Some local governments, like, Aceh, Yogyakarta, Bali, and others, promote their use in signage and education. Currently, Nusantara scripts that still in use are:
Balinese– A Brahmic-based script, used to write Balinese and Sasak. It is closely related to Javanese script. Balinese script is taught in some schools in Bali and Lombok. Variants of Balinese script are:
Sundanese– A Brahmic-based script, used by Sundanese to write the Sundanese language. Sundanese script is taught in some schools in Banten and West Java.
Batak– A Brahmic-based script, used by the Batak people to write Batak languages. Batak script is taught in some schools in North Sumatra. Variants of Batak scripts are:
Batak Karo script
Batak Mandailing script
Batak Pakpak script
Batak Simalungun script
Batak Toba script
Ulu– A Brahmic-based script, used by southern Sumatran people to write Lampung, Bengkulu, Ogan, Rejang, Malay, Serawai, Kerinci, and other Malayic languages. Ulu script is taught in some schools in Jambi, Bengkulu, South Sumatra, and Lampung. Variants of Ulu scripts are:
Cia-Cia script – A Hangul-based script, used to write Cia-Cia. Cia-Cia is taught in some schools in Buton.
Foreign writing systems – Various foreign scripts that mainly used by the descendants of the respective ethnicities or by foreigners residing in Indonesia. These foreign scripts are not managed by the government of Indonesia; thus, the regulations, rules, syntax, grammar, etc., follow the writing systems of their countries of origin. Several foreign scripts in Indonesia are:
Old Sundanese – Historically used to write Sundanese before being replaced by Latin, Pegon, and Sundanese scripts.
Kaganga– Historically used to write Rejang, an Austronesian language from Bengkulu.
Jangang-Jangang– Historically used to write Makassarese before being replaced by Latin, Jawi, and Lontara scripts.
Bilang-Bilang– Only used for poetry in Buginese language.
Toba Incung – Historically used to write Batak Toba language before being replaced by Latin and Batak scripts.
Bada/Badaic – Historically used to write Badaic languages.
Controversial scripts:
Malesung – Historically used to write Minahasan languages.
Nggahi Mbojo – Historically used to write Bima before being replaced by Latin and Lontara scripts.
Minang/Tamboalam – Historically used to write Minangkabau before being replaced by Latin and Jawi scripts.
Mongondow/Basahan – Historically used to write Mongondow before being replaced by Latin script.
Bonda, Tidung, and Mentawai (scripts that have little evidence and need more research).
Gayo, Palembang, Kanung, Sangir, Cirebon, Alifuru, and Iban/Dunging (scripts that have very little to no evidence that these scripts ever used historically).
All people are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should associate with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.
Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia)
Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.
Sabên manungsa kalairake mardika lan darbe martabat lan hak-hak kang padha. Kabeh pinaringan akal lan kalbu sarta kaajab anggone pasrawungan mêmitran siji lan liyane tansah ngugemi jiwa paseduluran.
Sakumna jalma gubrag ka alam dunya téh sipatna merdika jeung boga martabat katut hak-hak anu sarua. Maranéhna dibéré akal jeung haté nurani, campur-gaul jeung sasamana aya dina sumanget duduluran.
Sadonyo manusia dilahiakan mardeka dan punyo martabat sarato hak-hak nan samo. Mareka dikaruniai aka jo hati nurani, supayo satu samo lain bagaul sarupo urang badunsanak.
Sininna rupa tau ri jajiangngi rilinoe nappunnai manengngi riasengnge alebbireng. Nappunai riasengnge akkaleng, nappunai riasengnge ati marennni na sibole bolena pada sipakatau pada massalasureng.
Sami manusane sane nyruwadi wantah merdeka tur maduwe kautamaan lan hak-hak sane pateh. Sami kalugrain papineh lan idep tur mangdane pada masawitra melarapan semangat pakulawargaan.
Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan samarata dari segi kemuliaan dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.
Sude jolma tubu bebas jala sarupa do hasangapon dohot hakna. Dilehon do tu nasida akal dohot panggora ni roha jala ingkon masiurupan do nasida di bagasan tondi parhahamaranggion.[citation needed]
Madurese (Basa Madura or باس مادورا)
سادجان اوريڠ لاهير مردكا اي ساريڠ دراجت كلابن حق-حق سي ضا-ڤاضا. سادجان ايڤرڠي عقل ساريڠ نوراني بن كودو اريڠ-ساريڠ اكنچ كادي تاريتن
Sadajana oreng lahir mardika e sarenge drajat klaban hak-hak se dha-padha. Sadajana eparenge akal sareng nurani ban kodu areng-sareng akanca kadi taretan.
Galo-galo uwong dari lahirnyo bebas, samorato martabat jugo hak-haknyo. Wong dienjuk utak samo raso ati, kendaknyo tu begaul sesamo manusio pecak wong sedulur.[citation needed]
Ganup jolma tubuh mardeka janah sarupa do harga diri ampa hakni. Ibere do bani sidea pingkiran ampa panggora ni uhur janah maningon marsaor do sidea ibagas tonduy parsaninaon.[citation needed]
Bandum ureuëng lahé deungön meurdéka, dan deungön martabat dan hak nyang saban. Ngön akai geuseumiké, ngön até geumeurasa, bandum geutanyoë lagèë cèëdara. Hak ngön keumuliaan.
Tetum (Lia-Tetun)
Ema hotu hotu moris hanesan ho dignidade ho direitu. Sira hotu iha hanoin, konsiensia n'e duni tenki hare malu hanesan espiritu maun-alin.[citation needed]
Dawan (Uab Metô)
Atoni ma bife ok-okê mahonis kamafutû ma nmuî upan ma hak namnés. Sin napein tenab ma nekmeü ma sin musti nabai es nok es onlê olif-tataf.[citation needed]
Kanan mansian mahonis merdeka ma nok upan ma hak papmesê. Sin naheun nok tenab ma nekmeû ma sin es nok es musti nfain onlê olif-tataf.[citation needed]
Kerina manusia tubuh bebas ras seri martabat ras hakna. Kalak enda ibereken akal ras pusuh peraten janah arus ersada arihna alu semangat persadan.[citation needed]
Sabarataan manusia diranakakan bibas mardika wan ba'isi martabat lawan jua ba'isi hak-hak nang sama. Bubuhannya sabarataan dibari'i akal wan jua pangrasa hati nurani, supaya samunyaan urang antara sa'ikung lawan sa'ikung bapatutan nangkaya urang badangsanakan.[citation needed]
Lampung (Bahasa Lampung)
Unyin Jelema dilaheʁko merdeka jama wat pi'il ʁik hak sai gokgoh. Tiyan dikaruniako akal jama hati nurani maʁai unggal tiyan dapok nengah nyampoʁ dilom semangat muaʁiyan.[citation needed]
Komering (Basa Kumoring)
Kaunyin jolma tilahirko mardeka rik uwat pi'il rik hak-hak sai goh-goh. Tiyan tiunjuk akal pikiran rik hati nurani mari tiyan dapok nyampur rik sai barihna dilom semangat bukolpah.[citation needed]
Rejang (Baso Jang)
Kutê tun laher mêrdeka, tmuan hok-hok gik srai. Kutê nagiak-ba akêa peker ngen atêi, kêrno o kêlok-nê bêkuat-ba do ngen luyên lêm asai sêpasuak.[citation needed]
Bengkulu Malay (Bahaso Melayu Bengkulu)
Segalo orang dilahirkan merdeka kek punyo martabat kek hak-hak yang samo. Tobonyo dikasi akal kek hati nurani supayo bekawan dalam raso cak orang besanak.[citation needed]
Comparison chart
Below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. All of them except for Galela belong to the Austronesian language family. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as languages and which ones should be classified as dialects, the chart confirms that many have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. The languages are arranged geographically.
↑Zein's definition of "Malayic" RLFs should not be confused with the genealogical Malayic subgroup of Malayo-Polynesian languages. The genealogical Malayic subgroup also includes languages that are listed by Zein as "non-Malayic" RLFs, such as Iban and Musi.
↑Palmer, Bill (2018). "Language families of the New Guinea Area". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol.4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp.1–20. ISBN978-3-11-028642-7.
↑Palfreyman, Nick (2015). Sign language varieties of Indonesia: A linguistic and sociolinguistic investigation (PhD thesis). Lancashire, the UK: University of Central Lancashire.
